Health Belief Models

According to the theory of planned behavior, it has been illustrated that the attitudes towards a certain behavior, subjective norms and the perceived behavioral control is what shapes a person’s behavioral intentions and behavior. On the other hand, according to classical conditioning theory, the Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov explained that behavior is brought about by a repetitive association between the response and the stimulus. Health belief model aims at predicting health behavior by focusing on attitudes of an individual (Dodel & Mesch, 2017). This paper therefore focuses on the application of planned behavior theory and classical conditioning theory to type 2 diabetes among the elderly people and hypertension among the black Americans. In addition, the paper also explores health beliefs among these groups and their impact to the overall health.

The theory of planned behavior was advanced in the 1980s. Initially, it was known as the theory of reasoned action. The main proponent of the theory was Icek Ajzen. The theory is mainly used to explain and predict behaviors among people. Some of these behaviors include, alcoholism, smoking, response to health activities and processes such as vaccination, treatment and breastfeeding among others. The theory is also used to establish and describe various types of beliefs. These include behavioral, normative and control.

The theory of planned behavior explains six constructs that may be used to explain human control over behavior. These constructs include attitudes, behavioral intention, subjective norms, social norms, perceived power and perceived behavioral control. These constructs are able to influence culture and how human beings perceive and view health from these cultural and individual influences.

The theory of classical conditioning was developed by a Russian psychologist known as Ivan Pavlov. Pavlov developed this behavioral theory after conducting experiments on dogs. The main argument of the theory is that all behavior is conditioned. This can be described that behavior is altered with stimuli and responses. The theory is both a learning and a behavioral theory. The main argument of the theory is that a behavior can be learned or unlearned through a simple process of conditioning.

According to Bui, & Fazio, (2016), conditioning takes place when a neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus. The conditioned stimulus is usually an induced, neutral stimulus such as the sound of a bell. The unconditioned stimulus is a natural biological such as smell of food. At normal circumstances, it is the unconditioned stimulus that elicits a biological response naturally. However after the unconditioned and the conditioned response are paired, the conditioned response is able to elicit the same biological response as after a series of repeated events. Eventually, the conditioned stimulus is able to elicit the same biological response even without the unconditioned natural stimulus.

Theory of Planned Behavior

Type 2 diabetes has been described as a condition when human cells cannot make use of blood sugars for energy. In type 2 diabetes condition the body still breaks down carbohydrates from foods and drinks that is ingested and converts it into glucose. The pancreas, in turn, releases insulin but the cells are resistant to insulin thus the rise of blood glucose levels (International Conference on Biomedical Engineering, & In Goh, 2013)

Type 2 diabetes prevalence rates are high among the older populations and among senior citizens. Obesity and sedentary lifestyles devoid of physical exercise have been the main cause of type 1 diabetes. On the other hand, type 2 diabetes is caused by unhealthy dietary practices, consumption of too starchy foods and lack of exercise. Frequent rise of sugars in the blood causes irregular production of insulin. This eventually causes the cells to become resistant to insulin. The body is therefore not able to convert glucose into glycogen for storage (Ryan, 2016).

Attitudes, behavioral intentions and norms as described in the theory of planned behavior can be ascribed to the high prevalence levels of diabetes type 2 among the elderly. Some of the personal preferences may include consumption of too much sugar in tea and foods such as white bread as opposed to brown bread and other types of foods. Societal norms and culture which include long years of white collar jobs and office working which makes people become obese if they are not conscious about their body weight (Malik, Li,  Tobias, Pan, & Hu, 2016).

According to classical conditioning, it is also possible to attribute diabetes to various habits that people develop over time. The perception towards treatment options and prevention of diabetes is also largely influenced by human actions and preferences. Classical conditioning also includes explanations that people give for various actions and disease conditions.

Hypertension, on the other hand, also known high blood pressure, is a condition in which the long-term forcing of blood against the artery walls is so high to an extent of causing health complications such as heart disease (Medbroadcast, 2018).

The African Americans are more likely to suffer from high blood pressure than any other ethnic group in the United States. According to study and research, it has been reported that blood pressure among African Americans is a risk factor which can probably become the leading cause of death among this ethnic group. According to epidemiological data, it’s estimated that about 750000 of people die each year as a result of high blood pressure associated complications such as stroke. Amongst this number about 60% of death are black Americans.

Classical Conditioning Theory

Hypertension increases the risk of other cardiovascular diseases and chronic kidney disease. The CDC contended in 2010 that about 26.9% of the united states African Americans of over 20 years and above are diagnosed with and hypertension (Aronow, 2016). Among African Americans, behaviors which include, diet, physical activity and smoking have been observed. Attitude has been contended to have a composition of three beliefs, the cognitive beliefs in relation to causes and consequences of diabetes 2 in the elderly group and hypertension and beliefs in regard to negative or positive feelings on involving in practices that can prevent diabetes and hypertension (Sussman, 2015).

According to Richards, (2014) behavior change refers to modification or transformation of habits, attitudes and perceptions that influence human action. Behavior change has been influenced by the culture which has been passed on from generation to generation. Poor eating habits which includes eating foods with high cholesterol is among the various causes of hypertension. This coincides with the cognitive beliefs outlined in the theory. Another belief and norm that this black American has the passing of these conditions from generation to generation. This can arguably be through genetic inheritance and through inherited behaviors such as failure to take medication.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it is important to point that diseases such as diabetes and hypertension can be largely attributed to psychological, social and lifestyle factors. It is therefore not only possible but also necessary to control these diseases from the standpoint of lifestyle and behaviors (Moulton, 2016). In addition, the diseases can also be passed on from parent to offspring genetically and also some bad habits can also be inherited as well. Health behavior models such as classical conditioning and the theory of planned behavior are therefore models that can be used to cure these diseases as well as prevent their spread and reduce high prevalence rates.

References

Aronow, W. S. (2016). Orthostatic Hypotension in Diabetics in the ACCORD (Action to Control Cardiovascular Risk in Diabetes) Blood Pressure Trial. Hypertension, 68(4), 851-852. doi:10.1161/hypertensionaha.116.07605

Bui, E. T., & Fazio, R. H. (2016). Generalization of evaluative conditioning toward foods: Increasing sensitivity to health in eating intentions. Health Psychology, 35(8), 852.

Dodel, M., & Mesch, G. (2017). Cyber-victimization preventive behavior: A health belief model approach. Computers in Human Behavior, 68, 359-367. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2016.11.044

International Conference on Biomedical Engineering, & In Goh, J. C. (2013). The 15th International Conference on Biomedical Engineering: ICBME 2013, 4th to 7th December 2013, Singapore.

Malik, V. S., Li, Y., Tobias, D. K., Pan, A., & Hu, F. B. (2016). Dietary protein intake and risk of type 2 diabetes in US men and women. American journal of epidemiology, 183(8), 715-728.

Medbroadcast. (2018). MedBroadcast. Retrieved from HTTP:// https://www.medbroadcast.com/condition/getcondition/high-blood-pressure//

Moulton, S. A. (2016). Managing hypertension: Tools to improve health and prevent complications.

Richards, P. S. (2014). Health Behavior Change Education. Health Behavior Change in the Dental Practice, 145-167. doi: 10.1002/9781118786802.ch7

Ryan, M. J. (2016). “Slow” ing Cardiovascular Risk in Type 2 Diabetics by Restricting Dietary Salt Intake. Hypertension, 67(6), 1124-1125. doi:10.1161/hypertensionaha.116.07224

Sussman, R., Gifford, R., University of Victoria (B.C.), & University of Victoria (B.C.). (2015). Paved with good environmental intentions: Reconsidering the theory of planned behavior.