The interrelation between the immune system and endocrine system

The immune system of mammals is composed of innate and adaptive immune response in order to combat against the invading pathogens. In order to maintain a homeostatic environment between the pathogen, there exist a close interrelation between the endocrine system and immune system. Immune system exerts majority of the effects on the endocrine system via cytokines. Cytokines are small glycosylated proteins secreted by the human bodies.  Cytokines modulates the hypothalamic-pituitary unit. Cytokines like IL1beta and TNF-alpha inhibits the release of TSH from the pituitary gland via the stimulation of the K+ dependent release of the somatostatin from the hypothalamus of the brain (Boutzios & Kaltsas, 2015)

(Source: Boutzios & Kaltsas, 2015)

	Disease definition	Signs and Symptoms Save Time On Research and Writing Hire a Pro to Write You a 100% Plagiarism-Free Paper. Get My Paper
Type 1 Diabetes	In type 1 diabetes, body fail to produce adequate insulin leading to high glucose level. Here, body becomes allergic to own beta cells of Islet of Langerhans of the pancreas leading to their destruction and leading to inadequate insulin production (Kaufman, 2013).	1. Excessive excretion of urine 2. Increased hunger 3. blurry vision
Hypothyroidism	Also known as un-reactive thyroid disease where the thyroid gland fail to make adequate thyroid hormone. The common cause of hypothyroidism is Hashimoto’s thyroiditis. It is an autoimmune disorder where body produces auto-antibodies that attack and destroy the thyroid glands (Unnikrishnan et al., 2013).	1. Constipation 2. Depression 4. Slow heart rate

People who are suffering from diabetes mellitus have an increased risk of getting affects with musculoskeletal. People who have type 1 diabetes are at higher risk of developing rheumatoid arthritis. Both the conditions are regarded as autoimmune disease and research suggests that certain genes are associated with both the anomalies. People with type 2 diabetes have an increase risk of developing osteoarthritis and gout. In Type 2 diabetes, there occurs increase in body weight leading to strain over the bones which ultimately leads to osteoarthritis (D’Souza, Al-Sajee & Hawke, 2013).

Other musculoskeletal effects of Diabetes Mellitus include muscle cramps, muscle infraction, loss of deep tendon reflexes, reflex sympathetic dystrophy syndrome, peripheral neuropathy, carpal tunnel syndrome, stiff hands syndrome, neuropathic joints, and adhesive capsulitis over the shoulders, diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis, Dupuytren’s contracture and Tenosynovitis (D’Souza, Al-Sajee & Hawke, 2013).

Simon Ng has normal fasting blood glucose level. The upper limit of the fasting blood glucose level is 100 mg per dL. If a person score with in 100 to 125 mg per dL then he or she is considered to be prediabetic and 120 mg/dL or above than that is considered to be diabetic (Grundy, 2012).

Biological aging is defined as progressive deterioration of the function of the organs and tissues leading to loss of capability to restore homeostasis during stressed situation and thereby leading to age-related diseases. Aging is associated with gradual impairment of growth hormone secretion along with decrease in the body fluid concentration of insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1). This leads to hypothalamic decrease in growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH) with the decrease in the responsiveness of GHRH. These lead to lower physical activity and sleep disturbance. With aging, density of the thyroid gland increases. This results in decrease in the concentration of free T3 hormones (Castelo & Soveral, 2014).

Types of diseases and their symptoms

With aging, the endocrine system also gets affected. For example, Calcium de-regulation occurs in elderly people irrespective of gender, a condition known as hypocalcaemia. The condition is characterized by decrease in dietary intake and the situation becomes more severe while there is co-existing vitamin D deficiency. These decrease n Vitamin d caused osteoporosis and cardiovascular disease. Vitamin D supplementation is thus recommended in elderly people at a dose of 100 to 400 IU daily (depending on body mass and severity of the disease). However, medication of vitamin D is not recommended with calcium, as vitamin concentration is significantly lower than the bioavailability of the vitamin used. The supplementation helps in the improvement of the levels of the parathyroid hormone (PTH) (Castelo & Soveral, 2014).

Glucosamine is recommended for the treatment of the osteoarthritis arising out of type 2 diabetes mellitus. However, use of glucosamine is contradicted at times because it causes increase in the insulin resistance further, complication the disease condition (D’Souza, Al-Sajee & Hawke, 2013).

a) Nervous system is divided into two parts. One is the central nervous system, which consist of brain and spinal cord and another is the peripheral nervous system that connects the central nervous system to the rest of the body parts (Nieuwenhuys, Hans & Nicholson, 2014).

b) Nervous system has three main functions, a sensory function, imterpretative function and motor function. The Sensory nerves associated with sensory function collect the information via neurotransmitter from the body. The nerves then carry whole information to the CNS in order to execute them properly (Nieuwenhuys, Hans & Nicholson, 2014).

Figure: Nervous system

(Source: Nieuwenhuys, Hans & Nicholson, 2014)

Nerve conveys the impulses sent by the neurotransmitter. Efferent neurons or the motor nerve conveys the message from the spinal cord to the different organs of the body. Sensory or the afferent neurons convey the sensory nerve stimulus to the brain from the different parts of the body (Nieuwenhuys, Hans & Nicholson, 2014).

Therefore, afferent = receive and efferent = act

Source: Nieuwenhuys, Hans & Nicholson, 2014

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a semi permeable membrane that selectively seperates the circulating blood from the brain and from the extracellular fluid of the central nervous system (CNS) (Davson, 2012).

BBB provides both physiological and anatomical protection for the central nervous system (CNS). It strictly regulates the entry of several substances and blood bornes cells in to the nervous tissues of the nervous system (Davson, 2012).

Type 1 Diabetes

	Disease type	Symptoms
Parkinson’s Disease	Parkinson’s disease is an neurodegenerative disorder that affects the nerve cells which produce dopamine (Connolly & Lang, 2014)	1. Muscle stiffness 2. Daytime sleepiness 3. Fatigue 4. Amnesia 5. Impaired voice 6. Blank stare 7. Difficulty in standing 8. Restless sleep
Dementia	Dementia can be defines as a broad category of mental disorder that causes gradual decrease in memory and thinking ability. The most common form of dementia is Alzheimer’s disease. Other common types of dementia include vascular dementia, lewy body dementia and frontotemporal dementia (Prince et al., 2013).	1. Emotional problems 2. Problems with language 3. Decrease in motivation 4. Affect in the consciousness

Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is an inflammatory disease. It affects the central nervous system. The majority of MS patients experience bladder complication. Their bladder becomes over reactive a the nerve cells lining the bladder gets damage leading to uncontrollable urge to empty the bladder even though the bladder is not full (Tubaro et al., 2012).

a) Cerebrovascular accident is a mental term used for stroke. Stroke occurs when the flow of the blood inside the brain is hampered due to blockage or rupture of the blood vessels (Andrade, et al., 2012).

b) Doppler Ultrasound Test utilizes the reflected sound waves to denote the efficiency of the blood flow through the blood vessels. The relevance of the test is, it will help to ascertain the complex areas in blood flow through brain and the extent at which the flow is being hampered while in circulation (Andrade, et al., 2012).

As a person ages, the brain and the nervous system undergo natural chances. They lose nerve cells and weight leading to delay in the transmission of the neuronal message present inside the neurotransmitter. The breakdown of nerves affect the senses with reduce in the involuntary reflexes. In the area of functioning changes it cause loss of memory (Schmader et al., 2010).

Cholinesterase inhibitors are used to treat several cognitive symptoms, which are associated with the memory loss, confusion and difficulty in thinking. Cholinesterase inhibitors inhibit the cholinesterase enzyme. Inhibition of the cholinesterase enzyme inhibits the cleaving of acetylcholine, the neurotransmitter. This increases the duration of the neurotransmitter in the body, preventing loss of thought (Schmader et al., 2010).

People who are suffering from dementia often forget to trun on lights during night. So it is recommended to keep the light turned on inside the room of a demented patient. Moreover, it is also requested to keep the room free from jostling of furniture while installing safety switches. Such measures will be useful for the persons to find their way (McCabe & Innes, 2013).

References:

Andrade, S. E., Harrold, L. R., Tjia, J., Cutrona, S. L., Saczynski, J. S., Dodd, K. S., … & Gurwitz, J. H. (2012). A systematic review of validated methods for identifying cerebrovascular accident or transient ischemic attack using administrative data. Pharmacoepidemiology and drug safety, 21(S1), 100-128.

Boutzios, G., & Kaltsas, G. (2015). Immune system effects on the endocrine system. Ebook, www.endotext.org

Castelo-Branco, C., & Soveral, I. (2014). The immune system and aging: a review. Gynecological Endocrinology, 30(1), 16-22.

Connolly, B. S., & Lang, A. E. (2014). Pharmacological treatment of Parkinson disease: a review. Jama, 311(16), 1670-1683.

Davson, H. (2012). The blood-brain barrier. The structure and function of nervous tissue, 4, 321-445.

D’Souza, D. M., Al-Sajee, D., & Hawke, T. J. (2013). Diabetic myopathy: impact of diabetes mellitus on skeletal muscle progenitor cells. Frontiers in physiology, vol. 4.

Grundy, S. M. (2012). Pre-diabetes, metabolic syndrome, and cardiovascular risk. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 59(7), 635-643.

Kaufman, F. R. (2013). Type 1 diabetes mellitus. Ebook, 24(9), 291-300.

McCabe, L., & Innes, A. (2013). Supporting safe walking for people with dementia: User participation in the development of new technology. Gerontechnology, 12(1), 4-15.

Nieuwenhuys, R., Hans, J., & Nicholson, C. (2014). The central nervous system of vertebrates. Springer. Vol. 1

Prince, M., Bryce, R., Albanese, E., Wimo, A., Ribeiro, W., & Ferri, C. P. (2013). The global prevalence of dementia: a systematic review and metaanalysis. Alzheimer’s & Dementia, 9(1), 63-75.

Schmader, K. E., Baron, R., Haanpää, M. L., Mayer, J., O’connor, A. B., Rice, A. S., & Stacey, B. (2010, March). Treatment considerations for elderly and frail patients with neuropathic pain. In Mayo Clinic Proceedings, Elsevier, 85(3), pp. S26-S32.

Tubaro, A., Puccini, F., De Nunzio, C., Digesu, G. A., Elneil, S., Gobbi, C., & Khullar, V. (2012). The treatment of lower urinary tract symptoms in patients with multiple sclerosis: a systematic review. Current urology reports, 13(5), 335-342.

Unnikrishnan, A. G., Kalra, S., Sahay, R. K., Bantwal, G., John, M., & Tewari, N. (2013). Prevalence of hypothyroidism in adults: An epidemiological study in eight cities of India. Indian journal of endocrinology and metabolism, 17(4), 647.