Case Studies of the Status of Waste Management and Sustainable Development in Developed Country

Waste is described as the materials and products that are not used, leftovers material or the by-product generated at the time of the construction or the maintenance period of the building. In most nations, more so in the developing countries the major serious health and environmental problems are related with the improper solid waste management and the major environmental problem is the gas produced by the decomposition of the garbage. Therefore the solid waste management should be focused on to enhance the better sanitation and sustainability. Up to 40 per cent of the wastes going to the landfills is related to the construction and demolition of houses. Even more of the wastes are produced during the occupancy of the building and the production of goods being consumed on daily basis. Poor practices of the wastes can lead to degradation of air, water, and land resources and represent a great burden to the current and future generation.

Australia

During the 2^nd half of the 20^th century, there were accumulative calls for the actions by the science. Society groups of civil society and the politicians who upturned the requirement to address the bad effects of human actions on the natural environment. The publications of the Brundtland report in the year 1987 and earth summit in the Rio de Janeiro assisted to create the model of the sustainable development which rests on the notion of the growth that meets the present generation needs without compromising the capacity of future generation to encounter their needs (Achankeng, 2014).

The industry of construction is among the industries that produce the dumps loads of the wastes to the landfill. In Australia about 40percent of the demolition and construction wastes end up in the landfill.  Hence the government of Australia have initiated many strategies and ways that aim to decrease the building wastes. These comprise the levy on the wastes from building and many suggestions of the zero wastes approaches. Therefore some of the companies reuse, reduce, and recycle the building wastes to reduce the quantity of the landfill payment. Other motivation factors that used by the Australia government to reduce the wastes are it passive the ideas of the sustainable construction wastes from the cycle of the whole building instead of the demolition and construction stage only. It analyses the building constructors, companies and government regions and sustainability of material’s manufacturers’ issue in the Australian’s construction industry from the perspective of social, economic and environment. It scrutinizes the enthusiasm of the companies in the sustainable building wastes management under lower negative and positive goals and incentives (Agostino Petrillo, 2017).

Drivers of Energy Generation

The forty-eight tonnes of the solid waste materials produce every year in Australian’s materials economy are handled through the 2846 facility of waste management in Australia which is normally grouped into the transfer stations, landfill, and the facilities of resource recovery.

Jurisdiction	Facility for resource recovery	landfill	Transfer station	total
NSW(New South Wales)	121	369	166	656
QLD( Queensland)	88	265	236	589
VIC( Victoria)	233	92	239	564
ACT(Australian Capacity Territory)	6	1	1	8
NT( Northern Territory)	10	118	4	132
TAS( Tasmania)	14	19	67	100
SA( South Australia)	247	117	133	497
WA( Western Australia)	86	187	26	299

Figure 1: distribution of waste management infrastructure in Australia (Achankeng, 2014)

Transfer stations: the transfer stations are the points of the consolidation in the wastes logistics chain, where the wastes collected can be aggregated, compacted, and loaded to the special reason, freight containers or the vehicles for the transportation to distant disposal sites. As shown in the table above, Australia has about 872 transfer station in work. Many small-scale facilities have been designed in the remote and regional areas, often in the landfill of view of the small landfill where the local communities without the services of the waste collection can consolidate wastes for the bulk collection. The facilities of large scale in the main cities are made to compress and ram loads of wastes into the long haul vehicles to maximize the efficiency of transportation (Awaji, 2014).

Resource recovery facilities: the facilities are designed to sort and process the materials that are discarded using many biological, mechanical, and thermal technologies. The major kinds of the resource recovery infrastructures are facilities of processing the garden organics, facilities to recover the materials from wastes, facilities for recycling, and facilities for alternative treatment of wastes (Azeem, 2012).

Landfills: landfills dominate the waste infrastructure and receive forty per cent of the wastes. They are the favoured mixed wastes destination because of their availability and capacity of existing facilities. In Australia 1168 licensed operational landfills receive twenty million tons of wastes every year.

Growth in the quantity of the wastes produced per capita in Australia has been driven by the demographic, economic and geographic activities. The results of the Australians’ quick growing materially intensive economy is the generation of large quantity of the wastes (Britain, 2016).

Figure 3: waste generation composition in every territory of Australia (Cantarello, 2014)

Figure 4: trends in industrial and commercial waste generation and their fate in Australia (Cantarello, 2014)

The management of waste our responsibility of the territory government that regulate and manage the wastes in accordance with the programs, policies, legislation. The government of Australia is responsible for the strategies, national legislation and the framework policies for the wastes comprising measures that give the impacts to the obligations under the international agreement. The local government has the responsibility for the management of wastes through the provision of a household collection of wastes and recycling services, operation and management of landfills, education and awareness delivery (Chang, 2013) 

Government and Business Laws and Regulations

The government of Australia has a long history of collaboration on the policies and actions on wastes. The first approach to the management of wastes was agreed under the 1992 national strategy for the sustainable ecological development by the council of government of Australia which committed Australia to enhance the efficiency where the resources are applied, reducing the effects on the environment of disposal wastes and improving the management of hazardous wastes. The national policy that was agreed by the ministers in 2009 and endorsed in 2010 provides the strategies for the management of wastes and the resource recovery in Australia to 2020 (Dhamija, 2017).

Australia is party to many international conventions and relevant agreement to the wastes that have been reflected in the national legislation. National environment conservation processes are made under the act of the national environment protection council (commonwealth) assists in achieving the required environmental outlines by giving the basis for ensuring the controlled wastes. National energy and greenhouse recording act 2007 presented the national framework for publishing company info about greenhouse gas discharges, production and consumption of energy and other info (Dhir, 2015).

Figure 5: territory and state waste management legislation and strategies (Ekström, 2014)

In comparison with many countries, Australia continues to rely on the basic technologies of managing the wastes. Some of the ninety-five percents of residual wastes are disposed to the landfills, most of the composting happens in the open window systems and the dangerous wastes are treated by the simple procedures. The energy to wastes is not well established either through the incineration or anaerobic digestion of the organics. Some of the residual wastes processing that happens in the Perth and Sydney where the capacity of a landfill is more constrained. Facilities like the global renewable UR-3R plant accept mixed wastes from the municipal and have the ability to recover the recyclable and process the residual into the organic conditioner of soil (Haggar, 2010).

While most of the landfills have the system of capturing the gas, not all the methane gas is captured. It is approximated that about 55% of the gas can be captured and of the 455 which is not captured, ten per cent escapes through the cap of the landfill over its total life cycle. Landfill gas is sometimes flared to lower the odour and change the methane gas into the CO2 less potent greenhouse gases. The growth of the landfill gas capture technology has occurred for many purposes, these comprised the incentives and regulatory requirement of the government to promote the generation of electricity from the renewable sources of energy and attempts to lower the emissions of greenhouse gases from the landfills. Most of the captured methane in Australia is used to generate electricity (Hanaki, 2016).

The process of recycling involves the separation, collection and processing of the waste materials for the manufacture into raw materials or the new products. Councils all over the Australia get the wastes for the recycling by the collection at the recycling centres, separate collection of curbside of the recyclable materials or wastes separation after the collection. The amount of recycled materials varies yearly. It is affected by the change factors id the economy like the growth in the consumption and income. Large producers of the wastes in the industrial, commercial, demolition and construction sectors usually arrange for the private collection and delivery of the recyclable materials to the reprocessed (Harper, 2016).

Pyrolysis: this is the thermal degradation of the carbon-based materials via the application of an external and indirect source of heat, usually the temperature of 450 to 750 degree Celsius in the absence of free oxygen to produce the carbonaceous char, combustible gas and oils. The syngas is used to power the plant to generate energy like the electricity and steam (Hebel, 2015).  

Figure 6: diagram of pyrolysis (Hebel, 2015)

Incineration: a thermal treatment of wastes process is whereby the unprocessed wastes are burnt at high temperatures known as the incineration. More air is required to oxidize the feedstock or the fuel. Wastes are exposed to 850degrees Celsius and later converted to water, carbon dioxide and ash. In Australia, the most commonly used combustion reactor is the moving grate. The system of combustion propels gradually the wastes into the chamber of combustion by the actuated mechanical grate. The waste is entering continuously from one end of the furnace and then ash is being removed from the other end. The processing condition requires to be controlled fully to optimize the combustion and also ensuring the complete combustion of the feed (Itoh, 2012).

Multi-compartment bins: recently Australia is using the multi-compartment bins for the source waste segregation. These type of waste bins have separate pats for the different types of wastes. Through this type of technology, the contamination can be avoided since the recyclable materials can be reused or recycled (Johnston, 2014)  

Optical sorting: technology has emerged rapidly in Australia for the last few years. Different types of wastes are sorted with the help of the colour sensitive cameras, infrared spectroscopy and UV sensors.

Composting: composting is the nature’s process of recycling the decomposing material into the rich soil as the compost. With the process of composting waste, the organic materials are reduced because of the water and CO2 and other gases released to the atmosphere. Compost is the good fertilizer for horticultural plants and gardening (Kubba, 2014).

The major target of the sustainable building is to develop the construction practices that are friendly to the environment that contribute to saving the energy, raw materials, water and minimize the greenhouse gases. These sustainable and green buildings can help reduce the construction and demolition wastes in Australia. The green building in Australia is in the practice of creating and using the processes that are environmentally responsible through the life cycle of the building such as the design, construction, site selection, maintenance and operations, demolition and renovations. The elements of the green and sustainable buildings in Australia are: harvest their own water and energy, operate pollution free and produce no wastes that are not useful for some processes in the building or neighbouring environment and promotes a healthy ecosystem (Kumar, 2016).

Figure 7: Green and sustainable buildings in Australia (Leal, 2013)

Sustainable steel: the sustainable resources exploration and technology is the prominent engineering and scientific investigation into the sustainability and processes of the resources of manufacturing. Researched have realized a procedure to wastes into the steel of high quality. This is a new approach that not only enhanced steelmaking in Australia but impacted to the exports of the valuable products in Britain, Europe and Asia (Lee, 2010).

Cross-laminated timber: Australia boost the highest timber of the high towers comprising many houses in Melbourne, Sydney and Brisbane. Every building is constructed of the manufactured wooden panels of the cross timber that is laminate, which decreases the strength of energy of the building process while giving the longtime capture of carbon. The capability of the prefabricated elements of the building means fewer wastes. Faster time of construction and less transport (Letcher, 2011).

Cool roofs: the developer stock land has been functioning with the research centre of Australia for the less carbon living to test the cool roof on the large-scale communities and shopping centres. Many cool roof resources and the colours have been put over the paces to define the one that reflect more sunlight and absorb more heat. The stock land is applying the lesson learnt now to ensure that the new community combats the heat effect and reduce the wastes as possible (Li, 2013).

Vietnam

Given the quick rate of suburbanization occurring around the world, the significance of an effective and efficient system of waste management is more important than ever. The State of Vietnam is situated on the eastern area of the Indochinese peninsula. It extends around 1650 kilometres. It is the second most populous country in Southeast Asia after Indonesia, its population was approximated to be around eighty three point five million (Management Association, 2012).

Disposal: the common and old method of the municipal solid wastes disposal in Vietnam were the open dumping, and burning. The procedure of the open dumping leads to the pollution of both air and water, in the form of litters on land. Toxic gases and particulates. The methane gas and residues of solid are also generated from the old process of burning wastes (Morone, 2015).

The amount of wastes produced in Vietnam has been steadily growing over the last decade. In the late 1990s the average quantity if wastes produced yearly was around five point nine million tons per year. 8 years later, the average weight of the municipal wastes was twelve point eight million tons /year with the agricultural and industrial wastes contributing to the 2.2 million tons yearly. Presently the quantity of the wastes generated by every person on the daily basis is less compared to the other cities in the area (Nath, 2014).

Figure 8: wastes generation by sources in Vietnam (Nath, 2014)

The waste management system is affected by many challenges, some of which comprise insufficient management, human resource and shortage of technology, a shortage of vehicles transportation and inadequate findings. The management of solid wastes is under the jurisdiction of many governmental bodies at the national, municipal and provincial levels even though there is no standardized system of wastes collection. The method of waste collection fluctuates from one place to the nest, in Vietnam urban areas, the people put their wastes out on the open channels of the street in front of their dwellings for the URENCO workers to pick them up. The trash is moved by the pushcarts that the collectors push on the front from door to door. When the pushcarts are occupied, they are pushed to the chosen transfer stations not very far from where the truck of the wastes will take them to the landfill or the dumpsite. In the places without the points of transfer, the residents are given the communal container and are very accountable for disposing their wastes into the containers. The truck of the URENCO comes on a daily basis to discharge the collective containers and transport it to the dump site (Pharino, 2017).

Landfill: In general solid wastes is not sorted at the sources or at the transfer points. They are all disposed to the landfill. There are around 92landfills located all over Vietnam and only 17 sanitary landfills. Of the 61 provincial capitals, only twelve have the sanitary and engineered landfills. Most of them don’t have the essential ground lining ad the top covers.  Most of them are also situated 200 to 500 meters of the inhabited areas. Many dumps and landfills in Vietnam are poorly operated causing the huge health danger to the local population because of the surface and groundwater contamination from the untreated leachate (Polprasert, 2017).

In some of the cities in Vietnam, the present sanitary landfills are being enhanced with the modern technologies. One of the specific sanitary landfills has been built at the price of 261.5 billion VND, the landfills cover around 25 hectares with a capacity of 3.65 million tons and the daily capacity of 2500tons per day. It has the system for the treatment and collection of the leachate water daily (Polprasert, 2015). This landfills also has the system of extracting gas of the vertical gas wells and the plant for extraction presently remove the gas more than an area of 7 hectares. The collected gas is used to fuel the engines (Prashanthi, 2016).

Also planned for Vietnam is the composting plant with the original capacity of 600 tons per day that in full volume will be able to handle 1200 tons per day. There are many composting amenities in Vietnam, one Cau Dien composting companies was enhanced in two thousand to treat fifty thousand tons per year domestic wastes. In some instances, the insufficient qualified personnel has been a problem to the efficiency of the facility of the composting. Case in point is the Viet tri-city, which is a well-known composting yields the low amount of compost that takes so long to produce because of the lack of understanding and experience of the biological procedures involved in the composting (Rao, 2016).

Figure 9: status of the chosen centralized composting facilities all over Vietnam (Roberts, 2014).

Incinerating wastes is not so common in Vietnam. A few facilities have the waste incinerator but mostly the wastes from the healthcare are disposed of primarily in the landfills. For the wastes from the hospitals being incinerated, very less statistics is available on the kind and quantity of the wastes being burnt since they don’t preserve the registers. Even though the incinerator is evaluated by the government for the technical standard and the gas discharges, the Republic of Vietnam lack the technologies to be used for the analysis of dioxin concentration produced by the incinerators (Roberts, 2017).

Recycling and reuse: the rate of retrieval and recycling in the Republic of Vietnam are very high. No info is present on the quantity of the wastes being recycled ay national level even though it is known that in the Hanoi, an estimate of one-fifth of the wastes is recycled, which is advanced than many towns in Asia. In overall, the practices of recycling at the level of the household are very high because of the many families who give away the used items or sell them back to the repair/used shops (Sangita, 2010).

Generally, the technology used for the organic wastes composed the anaerobic and aerobic digestion. The AD is a biological process where the bacteria break down the organic materials with less oxygen. This is an enclosed and controlled system when compared to the landfills. The composition of the AD is the digestate and biogas. The biogas composed 60% of methane and the remaining percentages for the carbon dioxide which can enter enhanced processes to produce the heat and electricity and also can be applied as the vehicles fuels. The anaerobic digestion is applied recently in some of the plants for treating wastes in Vietnam and the process takes around 40 to 45 days (Spence, 2015).

Figure 10: waste treatment plants that use the AD technology in producing the compost in Vietnam (Spiegel, 2010)

Figure 12: systems of waste management in Vietnam (Spiegel, 2010)

Green buildings are the environmentally friendly building which is of resource efficient, saves the energy, heat improved and very comfortable for living. In Vietnam, the development of the green building market is in the initial phase even though it has gotten increasing attention from the government and the industries. Comparing the number of green buildings with other countries such as Indonesia, Vietnam has fewer programs addressing the energy and has yet provided the regulations of green building. With all the benefits of green building, it should be considered the solution for the challenges in the development and increasing demand for the buildings in Vietnam, comprising the increasing population and over-urbanization. However the green building in Vietnam is still criticized as being slow and lacking the support of the government, it is recommended that the government should take the actions like ratification of regulations or giving out the incentives to promote the green buildings towards the sustainable development since it will reduce both construction and demolition wastes (Tanaka, 2013).

Since the 1990s together with the national modernization and industrialization progress, sectors of the business has been given priority to developing by the government.  The industrial, agricultural activities and services have been developed strongly and produced more wastes. To meet the current needs the government has built the policies that govern the disposal of wastes. The solid wastes management system has been approved with practical and specific regulations. At the lower level, in every city. The wastes managed by the urban environment companies which have the full roles to collect l dispose of, transport the generated wastes from the industries, residential and hospitals, nowadays more private companies are taking part on the disposal and recycling of wastes activities in the cities (Tolaymat, 2016).

The law on environmental protection was enacted in early 1993 and amended in the year 2005. Since then the policies on the protection of the environment have been implemented to ensure sustainability. According to the environmental protection laws, the ministry of natural resource and environment is the major ministry that implements, monitor and assesses the practices of the environmental law of protection. There are also other five ministries that are involved directly into the wastes management; the ministry of construction, health, planning and investment, industry and transport. The committee of the people takes care of the state at the local level. This means that the peoples’ committee is to monitor the implementation of the regulations of managing the environment to administrate the local agencies in their job to report higher management level (Ulas, 2015).

Figure 13: arrangement at the national level of waste management in Vietnam (Ulas, 2015)

According to the report of the nationals environment stare in the year 2015, there are some of the misunderstanding and lack of enough knowledge in the society about the waste treatment and management technologies. The sorting of the wastes at the source is not common in the country which impacts more challenges for the further treatment technologies like the compositing, recycling and biogas plant. There is still lack of the managerial skills in designing and choosing the locations for the transfer stations, landfill locations, and the methods of collection. Also, there is lack of proper practices in the management of the landfills like the wastes compaction before levelling of wastes, dumping final covering, and lack of the system to collect the leachate, and prevent the leachate from seeping into the ground (Unnisa, 2011). There are not enough and good technologies to monitor and collect the emitted gases from the landfills. The residents that are close to the Da Phuoc landfill in the Hochiminh city complained about the bad smell and odour originating from the landfill (Uyeda, 2011).

SWOT analysis of Australia

Figure 14: SWOT analysis of construction and demolition wastes in Australia (WONG, 2012)

• has the strong legal enforcement
• Signals of the intentions and priorities of the government
• A strong infrastructure of the government
• Exacts values of the numeric limits

• High compliance costs
• High initial cost of investment in the technologies that minimize wastes and enhance green and sustainable buildings
• Processes of setting standards need much deliberations and efforts
• Complete transparency of the set standard process is not available in every place.
• Different testing, methodologies, makes the comparisons difficult

• increasing environmental support and awareness
• The rate of explosive communication by the social media
• More innovative in the technologies that are environmentally friendly both present and future
• Increasing sustainable technology demand
• Potential lowering of the energy and wastes costs for the businesses
• Greater marketization in the wastes management and reduction

• increasing economic competitiveness about the protection of the environment
• Potential more partisan gridlock and politics
• Old law that governs environment may the subject to the new reinterpretation of judiciary
• Developing countries struggling for economic development as a priority
• The groups of businesses are advocating more in the future(Azeem, 2012)

 Strength

• The potential of energy use: the wastes body of the landfill does have potential of waste to energy even if it doesn’t validate deconstruction of the landfill body in terms of monetary. The materials that are partially incinerated need the backfilling.
• Potential of land recycling; the location of the Vietnam landfills ha a large land for reprocessing as the megacity need the space for expansion
• Potential of biomass use: the landfills has a long-term utilization of biomass potentials and can be unlocked over the crop energy cultivation on the plugged land.
• Consultant supervisions of the landfills: the environmental supervisions of the observing the sites of wastes is done by the authorities. The closed sites and landfills and also supervised and monitored by the authorities

• Potential of material utilization: the body of the Vietnam landfills don’t have more materials used in the hierarchy of the European waste administration
• Use of the landfill gas: the landfill gas is exhausted because of the decay of the decomposable wastes and the blocked gas system of collection
• The situation of the landfills: the landfill locations are not conserved, the capping of the landfill is not properly applied, and the system that collects the leachates works only temporarily causing the emissions.

• Polarization monetary: all the options for the reuse are strictly achievable and have the financial potential of valorization. The main boundary could be attained by the deconstruction of the dumping sites and landfills and also recycling. The application of the recycled land would lower the use of land
• Project pilot: the landfill land could be the pilot project for the deconstruction of the landfill or the after use over the energy crop cultivation and use in the biogas plant. With this purposes, the wastes could have the lighthouse roles in Vietnam and capacity construction of the environmental education and requirement
• Investors: there are many interested investors to get the recycle land

• Insufficient capacity: the great monetary development and the development means that wastes will continue to rise.
• Management: in the authority might lack the options and wills alongside the state- owned by the state and the foreign investor to implement the laws that exist
• Investors: there is the monetary danger for the investors as the subsoil situation in Vietnam is not yet investigated(Dhamija, 2017) 

This comparison between waste management in Australia and Vietnam will enable the international company to re-evaluates its currents technologies of managing wastes so as to abide by the policies and laws of Vietnam before venturing into the market. The decision of an international company considering entering the market in the developing country is one of the strategic decision that have a fundamental effects on any firm or company and all its external and internal operations. This strategy will enable the international company to diversify risks by pursuing the potentials abroad and also expanding their product line in the foreign market when launching ne technologies of managing waste and impacting knowledge and skills to the people of developing nations on how to manage wastes.

This strategy can greatly help in offsetting negative outcomes and the numerous uncertainties such as the political intolerants and economic downturns that are currently being experienced in the construction companies in Australia. The Australian international company will also attain a different growth rate since different market have different rate of growth and majority of international companies in the slow growth countries will consider relocating to the developing companies with faster growth rate such as the Vietnam . Since there are many reasons for going international, there can never be wrong or right mode of entry into the market of the developing country since numerous modes of entry are either wrong or right depending on the reasons why the international company is relocating to the developing country.  

Conclusion

Waste minimization is the processes and practices that are intended to reduce the amount of waste produced. By eliminating or reducing the production of the wastes, it supports a sustainable cities. The products and processes can also be designed to change the patterns of consumption and aim in the reduction of the wastes. Proper wastes management and treatment using the good technologies need the amount of time and resources. The generation of wastes can be reduced through the development of green building technologies as seen in Australia. This paper was to analyses the waste management in different nations, that is developed and developing nations. The case studies of Vietnam that represent the developing country and Australia that represent the developed country is performed so as they see the different ways and technologies of wastes management.

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