Compare and Contrast Strategy

The impact of compare and contrast strategy on student’s achievement in reading comprehension

Hebert (2016) stated that the text structure instruction has an immense impact on the compare and construct strategy that is used in the process of reading comprehension. He has further opined that a student’s ability to read is a vital precondition for much of what makes a person successful in the future. A sound ability of reading a phrase and comprehending the same via extracting its inner meaning helps student to succeed in their academic life (Hebert (2016). This ability of reading comprehensive can be refined via employing compare and contrast strategy. According to the research, done by Kao et al. (2016), helping students with high interactive e-book model, along with giving proper suggestion helps to increase the reading performance. They conducted a cooperative study via using high/low interactive electronic picture book which has an appealing design and fantasy storyline. The study showed the colour psychology in high interactive e-books help to promote the compare and contrast strategy of the students of the elementary school of 4 standards and thereby helping them to relate more with the story and thereby motivating them towards learning comprehension. Roehling et al. (2017) further stated that involvement of graphics organizers is another medium to impose compare and contrast strategytowards improving students reading comprehension skills. The improvement in skills is reflected via instant identification of the main theme of the story, finding supporting details against each and every hypothesis and ability to draw inference via joining stated facts and other associated opinions. In this regard, Kao et al. (2016) stated that the main pedagogical implication in employing compare and contrast strategy towards improvement of reading comprehension is, it motivates the student to create their own logical skills and interlinking of thoughts after reading the entire article. This helps the student to refine their logical thinking ability. Accordingto Roehling et al. (2017), use of the graphics organisers have numerous informational purposes. Teaching student about each structure via compare and contrast strategy have helped the student in the identification of the clue words that must be looked for in order to reveal the inner meaning of the text, it also helped the students to frame new questions for further exploring the content from deep. Knight and Sartini (2015) stated that the effectiveness of compare and contrast strategy increases when it is used along with other strategy like cause and effect. The same effect has been found to be extremely beneficial for the students with autism spectrum disorders. Thus overall compare and contrast strategy overall increases a student’s ability of reading and understanding comprehension. The main goal of compare and contrast strategy is to strengthen the memorizing skills of the students. The study done by Hebert  et al. (2016), among 2 to 12 grades students showed that increase in the text sixe and modification in the structure of the text help the student to instantly identify the difference between the two text and thereby helping them to easily apply the compare and contrast strategy. Compare and contrast strategy also helps the student develop higher-order thinking skills, the strategy also highlights the important details present in the comprehension and thereby making the abstract more prominent while reducing any scope of confusion present in between the related concepts (Hebert  et al. 2016). Knight and Sartini (2015) further opined in favour of compare and contrast strategy via stating that it not only helps in improving a student’s ability to read comprehension but also improves the writing skills of the students. Compare and contrast strategy when employed in classroom assist the students to develop the “habits of mind” like flexible thinking, metacognition (thinking about thinking), striving for accuracy, application of past knowledge to a completely new situation to extract relevant information and clarity along with sound precision in communication. All these further shape up student’s ability of reading comprehension (Buehl 2017).

Summarizing and Note Taking Strategy

Reading comprehension is identified as a process that excerpts and at the same time generates new meaning via having a student interact and be indulged with written language. Reading comprehension demands the reader to generate connections with the written text and in additions to the prior knowledge to the reader’s previous knowledge (Ness 2016). It is thus a complex task that requires a wide range of language understanding along with cognitive skills (Joseph et al. 20016). The strategy of summarizing helps the students to detect the meaning of the written text quickly rather than a series of individual sentences or words. This can also be done via using the process of self-questioning (Joseph et al. 20016). Numerous research based strategies have concluded that the strategy of summarizing and its impact on reading comprehension skills of a student is diverse. It is extremely useful for the students who are suffering from problems with vocabulary, difficulty in drawing inferences or understanding the main idea (Stevens et al. 2015). This concept of summarizing and taking notes is also useful in enhancing the reading comprehension skills to the students with learning disability. Ness (2016), has described the process of content summarization as an ability to express what the entire text is about. According to him, summary is a concise form of the text done via keeping the information and flow of the content intact. They have further opined that this concise manner of the entire text helps the students to gain interest in the topic, without reading more and thereby helping them to concentrate over the principal points of the text. Children with learning difficulty experiences difficulties in the areas of reading comprehension and they struggle to logical meaning from the written text and thereby fetching inference. These difficulties prevent these children to actively monitor their reading comprehension skills (Stevens et al. 2015). These challenges are not directly linked with their problems in decoding meaning but rather are associated with their limited working memory, misconceptions and lack of prior knowledge. Taking notes and creating a summarized content promotes spatial representation of these students and thereby helping them to improve their reading comprehension skills (Stevens et al. 2015). This again goes with the concept as stated by Stevens et al. (2015), which states the concept of summarization presents the whole content of the story in a compact manner and this help the student to comprehend the information quickly and thereby helping them to remember what they read. This in turn helps in the refinement of the cognitive skills of the students. The studies carried by Suggate (2016), however, showed that drawing improves the understanding of the students with learning difficulties in comparison to the strategies like main idea selection and summarizing. The study carried out by Denton et al. (2015) among healthy students showed that the reading strategies used to draft summary is found to be effective among the upper grade students in comparison to lower grade students. The paper proposed by Denton et al. 2015, proposed four principal rules that govern the strategy of taking notes in order to generate a compact yet meaning full summary. These four rules are identification of the main ideas, connecting the main ideas in a logical way and deleting he redundant information.  This findings was further strengthen by the work of Stevens et al. (2015) According to his team, strategy of summarization should be taught explicitly with the guide (mentor) modelling every single step of the strategy, providing a guided assistance with controlled material along with corrective feedback and then finally progression towards independent practice.

Reinforcing Effort and Providing Recognition Strategy

According to Marzano’s Instructional Strategies, showing interest towards the connection in between efforts and achievement of the students, aiding them to visualize the importance of their efforts, help the students work more on their efforts and thereby aiding towards improvement in reading comprehension skills (Thomas and Green 2015). Marzano’s further stated that this recognition is more useful if it is contingent on acquiring certain specific standard (Thomas and Green 2015). In order to motivate the students towards devoting more interest in reading comprehension, an educator can share the success stories of some stalwarts who have fight against all odds to secure the top most position in the professional career (Thomas and Green 2015). According to the reports published by Lin-Siegler et al. (2016), novel stories based instruction, which models how the stalwart has achieved through struggles and failures, helped to motivate the students of 9^th or 10^th grade. The success stories mostly encompass about the intellectual struggles, how they have overcame via learning from their mistakes and how they have flourished in the later stages of their career. Lin-Siegler et al. (2016), found this strategy of motivation to cast a prominent impact of the low-performing students. According to Marzano, an educator can also implement new ways in order to personalize the entire process recognition like providing individual awards and recognition (Thomas and Green 2015). The reports published by Kopcha et al. (2016), showed that autonomy along with recognition are some of the important aspects to motivate the students in their learning experience. Kopcha et al. (2016) further opined that using “gamified approach” is considered as a personalized recognition approach in order to motivate the students towards reading comprehension. Another important motivation strategy that can be employed by the educators to motivate the students towards reading comprehension is “pause, prompt and praise” (Thomas and Green 2015). According to the theory of “pause, prompt and praise, if any student is found struggling with any portion of the comprehension, it is the duty of the educator, to pause, and then analyse his or her problem, upon understanding the problem, the next duty is to prompt specific suggestion to the student in order to overcome the entire situation (Thomas and Green 2015). At the end, if the student is successful in implementing the suggestion provided by the educator, he or she must be praised in order to acknowledge his or her progress or achievement in reading comprehension. This in turn will motivate the students to strive for excellence thereby acting as a medium for self-motivation. As per the reports published by Vernon (2017), the strategy of “pause, prompt and praise” has found to be extremely effective among the students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Da Fonte and Capizzi (2015) further opined that pre-educators and educators practising “pause, prompt and praise” approach in students with learning disabilities has been found to get positive results. According to Thomas and Green (2015), it is the sole responsibility of the teachers to decide how to employ their resources and select strategies that will motivate their students to the required depth.

Non-Linguistic Representations Strategy

The impact of giving homework and practice strategy on student’s achievement in reading comprehension

According to Little et al. (2016), homework has long been associated with the achievement of the school children in several domains of education like mathematics, science and reading. Research suggests that higher reading comprehension skills are linked with the higher degree of homework assignment and its subsequent completion. According to him, homework is defined as school work that is assigned to each student to be completed after the hours of school, especially at home. It is considered via numerous teachers or education practitioners as an important part of the overall learning process in early stage of child’s development (Little et al. 2016). However, the practise of homework differs greatly in different under different settings such as classrooms, grade levels, school subjects and the students who are doing the homework. Research which is undertaken to ascertain the effect of homework in numerous academic achievements of the students has procured results supporting a consistent positive trend. This positive trend is directly proportional between the good homework behaviour and overall academic achievement (Little et al. 2016). Thus more is the amount of homework completed by a student in a diligent manner; more is the amount of academic achievement. This positive trend holds high significance in middle to high school in comparison to early elementary school (Little et al. 2016). However, the amount of homework accomplished during the early elementary school help in the development of meta-cognitive skills like self-monitoring which in the long run leads to the foundation of the reading comprehension skills along with improved study habits (Little et al. 2016). According to the research carried by Suk (2017) the extensive practise strategy of reading leads to slow down the practise of reading. This is because; students gradually built a persistent negative attitude towards the target-language reading. This negative attitude is attributed for the constant exposure towards the linguistically challenging texts and students gradually lose their interest in the overall passage. In order to cope up with the boredom of constant reading, the concept of homework comes into consideration Suk (2017). The exposure towards goal oriented homework framing having been found to be helpful for students to retain their interest in comprehension while eliminating the boredom. Moreover, this homework also help them to remain engage within the process of analysing the comprehension even while at home and thus helping them to get a detailed insight about the phrase. It also helps them to stay under constant practise Suk (2017). However, it is the duty of the researcher to design the homework lessons in such a manner that each lesson gives a completely new yet innovative approach about the comprehension passage. Such lesions include, known the meaning of the complex vocabs used inside the passage, framing or ascertaining the mindset of the character present in the story and inter-relation of one story with another. Moreover, such complex home lessons may not be helpful in the elementary level, and are found to be most effective at high school or secondary level of education as stated by Suk (2017). Alexander (2017) has further argued that providing high-stake tasks to the students in homework in order to refined their reading comprehension skills generate negativity among the students against that particular subject as well as homework. Alexander (2017) has suggested that use of platforms life Google classroom or partial drafts in homework will help the students to complete their work on time and with less strain and thereby helping them to gain interest and thus improving their overall performance in reading comprehension skills.

Cooperative Learning Strategy

Non-linguistic representations provide facts or information via employing examples or additional resources apart from words. According to Rosenberg 2012, numerous school teachers employ linguistic representations within the classroom in order to help the students to express their understanding about any particular phrase or stories. This non-linguistic mode to self-representation help the students to respond spontaneous and more freely. According to Branigan and Pickering (2017), when students are asked to express their own thoughts in words, they either become self-conscious or lack confidence to clearly express their thoughts. This where comes the importance of the structuring priming for linguistic representation as proposed by Branigan and Pickering (2017). However, non-linguistic mode of representations only asks them to respond in certain manner, making them more comfortable in representing their own thoughts. Non-linguistic representations elaborate on the knowledge as proposed by Tan and his team or wworkers in the year 2016. Tan et al. (216) has further proposed that this encouragement of explanation among the students help to promote their interest in learning via aiding short-term memory. This again goes with the study of Felice and Specia2012 which propose that elaboration signifies that students add their own concept with the main concept of knowledge that is being taught linguistically. There are different forms of non-linguistic representations like graphic representations, mental pictures, drawings, physical models and kinaesthetic activities. These activities are found to be great for the visual learners present inside the classrooms. The importance of this technique lies in the fact that not only it enables the students to learn the technology, but also it attentively engages them in what they are learning or doing(Rosenberg 2015). The mental pictures, drawings and graphic representations fall under the category of visual representation. Visual representation is thus regarded as an important from of non-linguistic representation in reading comprehension. It helps to enhance the capability of the children to symbolize and getting involved within the story. This sequential narratives present in the visual representation of non-linguistic mode of comprehension reading differs significantly from the text-based narratives(Wang and Gupta 2015). The difference in the study of the inference in sequential narratives should consider the role of perceptual process. In graphic organizers, a powerful picture is framed based on the available linguistic information via making the use of arrows or special symbols and this picture helps the students to see the patterns present inside relationship as stated in the comprehension. This is an example of construction of mental pictures(Regan et al. 2017). There are six different types of graphics organizers like descriptive, time-sequence patterns, episodic patterns, process/cause-effect pattern, generalizations pattern and concept patterns(Regan et al. 2017). Another important mode of non-linguistic data representation is Scene Perception and Event Comprehension theory (SPECT)(Magliano et al. 2016). In SPECT, the front end involves visual processing of the data within single fixations while the back end involves processing in memory across different fixation. Thus these processing of data create semantic representation of currently view events. This in turn lead to an up gradation of the mental model of narrative in episodic long term memory (Magliano et al. 2016). The concept proposed by SPECT goes in sync with the Dual Coding Theory. According to this theory, knowledge is stored in two different forms, one is linguistic form and another is non-linguistic form. The linguistic form mainly focuses on the storing or capturing of words or phrases. Non-linguistic form deals with storing of information via using mental pictures and other physical sensations along with images. However, both the form of knowledge is equally important in order to remember any form of information. Non-linguistic form of strategy additionally helps in shaping up the creativity, memory, reflective thinking and a personalised expression of the gathered knowledge(Magliano et al. 2016).

Setting Objectives and Providing Feedback Strategy

One of the recommended methods in teaching for enhancing reading skill is proper incorporation of cooperative learning. Cooperative learning is defined as a process of group learning activity that is staged in such a way that it makes learning more socially dependent. Here learning is defined as the exchange of data between the learners of the groups. This exchange of knowledge helps to increase the horizon of knowledge and keeping the learners group motivated while providing active support to the peers (Desai and Kulkarni 2016). This exchange of knowledge in cooperative learning skills is further helpful of the middle school students with learning disability as proposed by Swanson et al. (2015). When cooperative learning technique is implemented in proper way, it helps to provide a standard way to cultivate supportive relationships between the students. Capar and Tarim 2015 further generalized the concept of cooperative learning as a medium to develop critical thinking and logical reasoning skills among the students along with problem-solving attitudes. This in turn helps to refined the reading comprehension skills. (Capar and Tarim 2015). As a whole cooperative learning comprehensively leads to the development of reading comprehension skills and increased level of achievement (Capar and Tarim2015). Similar results have been established by the works of Slavin (2015). For them cooperative learning is proven to be an effective method for learning. It enables and encourages the students to narrate what they are actually learning to each other. This helps them to understand the learning view point of their co-mates thus enabling them to go beneath the superficial level of comprehending the material they are learning(Slavin2015). Cooperative learning also leads to greater acceptance of differences dependent on ability, ethnic background and gender. It provides the structure for resolving conflict via the process of negotiation(Slavin2015). According to the reports published by Tadesse and Gillies (2015), showed that students who are exposed to cooperative learning are found to be more focused on their learning, experienced more productive interaction and enjoyment and subsequently gained more knowledge on academic grounds in comparison to what they have achieved before joining the cooperative learning program. Thus shifting the focus of the academic institution from content-centred format to a learning-entered form not only cast a significant impact on the overall learning of the class but also helped in the improvement in other significant indicators of student’s success (Tadesse and Gillies2015). Furthermore the research of Batra and Parikh (2017) showed that cooperative learning done with visual attributes further help in the enhancement of the student reading comprehension skills. This approach is applicable in certain cases where privacy, security along with bandwidth constraints prevent the nature and the type of information the two agents (teacher and students) can exchange (Batra and Parikh 2017). On the other hand, Slavin (2015) is of the opinion that cooperative learning is one of the important approach that showcase positive results in boosting the writing and reading skills of the students under a relaxing atmosphere inside the classroom. Numerous teachers consider it as an effective solution for not only reading comprehension skills, but also for the other educational problems (Slavin2015).

Generating and Testing Hypothesis Strategy

The performance feedback method is used for providing information about the overall process of reading comprehension and thereby helping to promote proper transfer or maintenance of reading comprehension skills and behaviour (Coltheart 2016). The performance feedback methods via setting the objects help in increasing the reading fluency of the children thereby helping to excel in reading comprehension skills. Development in reading frequency helps in the refinement of the complex reading skills and overall reading ability of the children (Coltheart 2016). According to Wigfield, Gladstone and Turci (2016), feedback is important in order to record the progress in the learner’s performance. Thus feedback can be regarded as a useful tool to help the students to perform the reading comprehension skills in much refined manner. Importance of feedback is, it can prompt numerous mental processes like evaluation of proper information and comparing them with the existing information on the basis of previous experience and finally formation of beliefs in the concept of story that is illustrated within the comprehension (Wigfield, Gladstone and Turci 2016). Wigfiled et al. (2016) has further opined that giving feedback on the basis of set motivation help the students to gain motivation in the grounds of reading comprehension. This gain of motivation help the student to take the feedback in a positive sense and work on the objectives with improved dedication and concentration and thereby helping to achieve the set objectives quickly (Wigfield, Gladstone and Turci 2016). The new technique that has evolved in the giving feedbacks towards the improvement of the reading comprehension is providing content feedback. Importance of content feedback is, it does not focus on the vocabulary and grammar of the students but also cast immense attention in the grounds of the text of the content (Young 2015). The majority of the teachers make the mistakes on focusing on the grammar correction skills. Young (2015) argues that the focusing on the grammar correction skills and giving feedback on the same fail to achieve all the learning goals that are associated with feedback strategy in reading comprehension. The content feedback given on a class room setting encompass grammar, reading style, use of punctuation, pronunciation and refinement of the vocabulary thus helping he early learners in  development skills like communication, vocabulary and reading (Young 2015).  According to the reports published by Cuticelli, Collier?Meek and Coyne (2016), showed that in the grounds of reading achievement, the majority of the young students score much below the bar of standard reading proficiency. However, guiding the students with high quality evidenced based research reading instructions can help the students to overcome the reading difficulties. Via the application of the core reading programs, like tools, the teachers can help the students with the evidence based and research based feedback strategy to work on their reading comprehension skills. However, in executing this process, the classroom teachers require support in order to increase the student reading outcomes. This support can come in the form of graphical feedback which will assist the teachers to set new set of objectives in order increase the reading comprehension skills of the students (Cuticelli, Collier?Meek and Coyne 2016).

Differentiated Questions and Graphic Organizers Strategy

Testing hypothesis strategy in reading comprehension skills fall under the category of predicting and re-predicting (LaRusso et al. 2016). According to this strategy of LaRusso et al. 2016, the readers anticipate and predict ahead of time and events, even before the context appear on the text. This leads to forming and testing hypothesis. According to the reports published by Catts et al. (2015), the prediction or the hypothesis changes along with the flow of the information present in the text. This change in the flow of the information and its ability to detect the same within the text depends on the development of the numerous cognitive tasks. These cognitive tasks help in hypothesis generation and testing (Catts et al. 2012). However, to track the change in the flow of the information, the working memory capacity is extremely important. Testing hypothesis strategy helps in increasing working memory attention. In order to enhance the working memory attention, a student must adapt tasks like retrieval, comprehension, and analysis and knowledge utilization. Retrieval helps in recognition, execution and recalling (Spiro et al. 2017). Comprehension on the other hand has been found to help the student towards the process of integration of the information and simultaneous symbolizing. Analysis via matching and generalization help in the overall process of decision making and proper utilization of knowledge (Spiro et al. 2017). The same concept has been opined by Allen, Snow and McNamara (2015), who states that generating and testing hypothesis increasing the prediction power of the students thereby helping them to refine their reading comprehension skills. Silva and Cain (2015) conducted a study on 4 to 6 years old children in order to determine how the skills of the lower level comprehension (receptive vocabulary and grammar) and verbal memory assist the high level comprehension skills (literal and inference story). Their results showed that the inference skills are crucial factor in generating the power of the hypothesis. This in turn helps in reading comprehension development in the early stage. Inference skills were further shown to aid the predictive power of the students. It helps them to grab the inner meaning of the comprehension quickly, helping the students to excel in the domain of reading comprehension (Silva and Cain 2015). Hintz, Meyer and Huettig (2016), further argued that the increase in the prediction power help the students to examine the clues present inside the text. This identification of the clues helps to make educated guess about what the text is all about and what is going to happen in the coming phrase of the story. Hintz, Meyer and Huettig (2016) further opined that generation of the interest in the story helps the student to read the comprehension with sustained attention. Predicting and re-predicting under the banner of testing hypothesis strategy can be practise both in whole groups, small groups and individual reading conference. In order to make prediction, the student needs to accumulate information about the text from its titles, and pictures and relate with its previous knowledge (Hintz, Meyer and Huettig 2016). It is the duty of the teacher to guide the student through the prediction process and then stop them periodically to confirm or to discard the prediction and then assist them in re-predicting a new hypothesis based on the new set of information (Hintz, Meyer and Huettig 2016).

Differentiated instruction is defined as a mode of teaching that is employed by a teacher to create and deliver instructions in different ways in order to reach out to the diverse blend of students. In short, the concept of differentiated instruction signifies the manner in which a teacher takes into account a student’s readiness, learning style and interest while ascertaining how the student will perform through the material (reading text) given to him or her (Boelens, Voet and De Wever 2018). The study conducted by Shaunessy-Dedrick et al. (2015) tested the affect of different reading in the form of differentiated questions among the class four student’s ability towards reading comprehension and their attitudes towards reading. Their study revealed significant improvement in the grounds of reading comprehension in comparison to the placebo (Shaunessy-Dedrick et al. 2015). They employed Schoolwide Enrichment Model-Reading framework in order to study differentiated reading approach and under this approach they tested basic skills and attitudes towards reading comprehension and henceforth drew the conclusion in favour of differentiated reading. However, according to Valiandes (2015), the concept of differentiated reading can be tricky because students’ comprehension and lexile levels vary greatly. It is important for the professors to ascertain that how he or she will address the requirements of all the students with different intellect in the classroom set-up without straying from the required curriculum. In order to differentiate between students’ readiness among a group of students in a classroom settings, graphic organisers are used as one of the essential tools (Redfern 2015). Graphic organisers (GOs) are gradually becoming one of the most acceptable yet standard instructional tools across numerous domains in the education arena. Visual representation of information is now integrated as one of the effective teaching methods in classroom settings (Redfern 2015). The study conducted by Uba et al. (2017), over 100 secondary students in prose literature in English language showed that graphics based representation enable the students to take the entire charge of the process of learning in the class of prose literature. The study finally concluded that proper visual instructional elements guarantee the process of student understanding and subsequent achievement. The study further recommended proper incorporation of graphic organizers in the learning and teaching process for increasing the reading comprehension skills of the students (Uba et al. 2017). According to Ba? and Beyhab (2017), graphic organisers are effective yet important pedagogical tools that help in the organisation of the content and its ideas and thereby facilitating the learner’s comprehension of newly gained data. Gardner’ Theory of Multiple Intelligences states that the students are in a better position to study and internalize the stated information in the content when they are exposed to more than one learning modality. This is explained under the banner of instructional strategy. Since the utilization of the graphic organizers present material through the spatial and visual modalities, the application of graphic organisers inside the classroom helps the students to internalize the concept what they are learning (Redfern 2015).

References

Alexander, M., 2017, April. Responding to Student Writing: Low Stakes Homework and Partial Drafts Presentation Notes. Honolulu: 2017 UH First-Year Writing Symposium.

Allen, L.K., Snow, E.L. and McNamara, D.S., 2015, March. Are you reading my mind?: modeling students’ reading comprehension skills with natural language processing techniques. In Proceedings of the fifth international conference on learning analytics and knowledge (pp. 246-254). ACM.

Ba?, G. and Beyhab, Ö., 2017. Effects of multiple intelligences supported project-based learning on students’ achievement levels and attitudes towards English lesson. International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, 2(3), pp.365-386.

Batra, T. and Parikh, D., 2017. Cooperative Learning with Visual Attributes. arXiv preprint arXiv:1705.05512.

Boelens, R., Voet, M. and De Wever, B., 2018. The design of blended learning in response to student diversity in higher education: Instructors’ views and use of differentiated instruction in blended learning. Computers & Education.

Branigan, H.P. and Pickering, M.J., 2017. An experimental approach to linguistic representation. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 40.

Buehl, D., 2017. Classroom strategies for interactive learning. Stenhouse Publishers.

Capar, G. and Tarim, K., 2015. Efficacy of the Cooperative Learning Method on Mathematics Achievement and Attitude: A Meta-Analysis Research. Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice, 15(2), pp.553-559.

Catts, H.W., Herrera, S., Nielsen, D.C. and Bridges, M.S., 2015. Early prediction of reading comprehension within the simple view framework. Reading and Writing, 28(9), pp.1407-1425.

Coltheart, M. ed., 2016. Attention and performance XII: The psychology of reading. Routledge.

Cuticelli, M., Collier?Meek, M. and Coyne, M., 2016. Increasing the quality of tier 1 reading instruction: Using performance feedback to increase opportunities to respond during implementation of a core reading program. Psychology in the Schools, 53(1), pp.89-105.

Da Fonte, M.A. and Capizzi, A.M., 2015. A module-based approach: Training paraeducators on evidence-based practices. Physical Disabilities: Education and Related Services, 34(1), pp.31-54.

Denton, C.A., Wolters, C.A., York, M.J., Swanson, E., Kulesz, P.A. and Francis, D.J., 2015. Adolescents’ use of reading comprehension strategies: Differences related to reading proficiency, grade level, and gender. Learning and Individual Differences, 37, pp.81-95.

Desai, T.S. and Kulkarni, P.P., 2016. ‘Cooperative Learning’Tool for Optimizing Outcomes of Engineering Education. Journal of Engineering Education Transformations.

Felice, M. and Specia, L., 2012, June. Linguistic features for quality estimation. In Proceedings of the Seventh Workshop on Statistical Machine Translation (pp. 96-103).Association for Computational Linguistics.

Hebert, M., Bohaty, J.J., Nelson, J.R. and Brown, J., 2016. The effects of text structure instruction on expository reading comprehension: A meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 108(5), p.609.

Hebert, M., Bohaty, J.J., Nelson, J.R. and Brown, J., 2016. The effects of text structure instruction on expository reading comprehension: A meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 108(5), p.609.

Hintz, F., Meyer, A.S. and Huettig, F., 2016. Encouraging prediction during production facilitates subsequent comprehension: Evidence from interleaved object naming in sentence context and sentence reading. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 69(6), pp.1056-1063.

Joseph, L.M., Alber-Morgan, S., Cullen, J. and Rouse, C., 2016. The effects of self-questioning on reading comprehension: A literature review. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 32(2), pp.152-173.

Kao, G.Y.M., Tsai, C.C., Liu, C.Y. and Yang, C.H., 2016. The effects of high/low interactive electronic storybooks on elementary school students’ reading motivation, story comprehension and chromatics concepts. Computers & Education, 100, pp.56-70.

Knight, V.F. and Sartini, E., 2015. A comprehensive literature review of comprehension strategies in core content areas for students with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of autism and developmental disorders, 45(5), pp.1213-1229.

Kopcha, T.J., Ding, L., Neumann, K.L. and Choi, I., 2016. Teaching technology integration to k-12 educators: A ‘Gamified’approach. TechTrends, 60(1), pp.62-69.

LaRusso, M., Kim, H.Y., Selman, R., Uccelli, P., Dawson, T., Jones, S., Donovan, S. and Snow, C., 2016. Contributions of academic language, perspective taking, and complex reasoning to deep reading comprehension. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 9(2), pp.201-222.

Lin-Siegler, X., Ahn, J.N., Chen, J., Fang, F.F.A. and Luna-Lucero, M., 2016. Even Einstein struggled: Effects of learning about great scientists’ struggles on high school students’ motivation to learn science. Journal of Educational Psychology, 108(3), p.314.

Little, C.W., Hart, S.A., Schatschneider, C. and Taylor, J., 2016. Examining associations among ADHD, homework behavior, and reading comprehension: A twin study. Journal of learning disabilities, 49(4), pp.410-423.

Magliano, J.P., Larson, A.M., Higgs, K. and Loschky, L.C., 2016.The relative roles of visuospatial and linguistic working memory systems in generating inferences during visual narrative comprehension. Memory & cognition, 44(2), pp.207-219.

Ness, M.K., 2016. Reading comprehension strategies in secondary content area classrooms: Teacher use of and attitudes towards reading comprehension instruction. Reading Horizons (Online), 55(1), p.58.

Redfern, A., 2015. The Essential Guide to Classroom Practice: 200+ Strategies for Outstanding Teaching and Learning. Routledge.

Regan, K., Evmenova, A.S., Boykin, A., Sacco, D., Good, K., Ahn, S.Y., MacVittie, N. and Hughes, M.D., 2017. Supporting struggling writers with class-wide teacher implementation of a computer-based graphic organizer. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 33(5), pp.428-448.

Roehling, J.V., Hebert, M., Nelson, J.R. and Bohaty, J.J., 2017. Text Structure Strategies for Improving Expository Reading Comprehension. The Reading Teacher, 71(1), pp.71-82.

Rosenberg, J.F., 2015. Linguistic representation (Vol. 1).Springer Science & Business Media.

Shaunessy-Dedrick, E., Evans, L., Ferron, J. and Lindo, M., 2015. Effects of differentiated reading on elementary students’ reading comprehension and attitudes toward reading. Gifted Child Quarterly, 59(2), pp.91-107.

Silva, M. and Cain, K., 2015. The relations between lower and higher level comprehension skills and their role in prediction of early reading comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(2), p.321.

Slavin, R.E., 2015. Cooperative learning in elementary schools. Education 3-13, 43(1), pp.5-14.

Spiro, R.J., Bruce, B.C. and Brewer, W.F. eds., 2017. Theoretical issues in reading comprehension: Perspectives from cognitive psychology, linguistics, artificial intelligence and education (Vol. 11). Routledge.

Stevens, R.J., Lu, X., Baker, D.P., Ray, M.N., Eckert, S.A. and Gamson, D.A., 2015. Assessing the cognitive demands of a century of reading curricula: An analysis of reading text and comprehension tasks from 1910 to 2000. American Educational Research Journal, 52(3), pp.582-617.

Suggate, S.P., 2016. A meta-analysis of the long-term effects of phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, and reading comprehension interventions. Journal of learning disabilities, 49(1), pp.77-96.

Suk, N., 2017. The effects of extensive reading on reading comprehension, reading rate, and vocabulary acquisition. Reading Research Quarterly, 52(1), pp.73-89.

Swanson, E., Wanzek, J., Vaughn, S., Roberts, G. and Fall, A.M., 2015. Improving reading comprehension and social studies knowledge among middle school students with disabilities. Exceptional Children, 81(4), pp.426-442.

Tadesse, T. and Gillies, R.M., 2015.Nurturing cooperative learning pedagogies in higher education classrooms: evidence of instructional reform and potential challenges. Current Issues in Education, 18(2).

Tan, Y., Acheson, D.J. and Hagoort, P., 2016. Moving beyond single words: dissociating levels of linguistic representation in short-term memory (STM). In the 22nd Annual Conference on Architectures and Mechanisms for Language Processing (AMLaP 2016).

Thomas, I.A. and Green, R.L., 2015, January. Using Instructional Strategies to Enhance Student Achievement. In National Forum of Teacher Education Journal (Vol. 25, No. 3).

Uba, E., Oteikwu, E.A., Onwuka, E. and Abiodun-Eniayekan, E., 2017. A research-based evidence of the effect of graphic organizers on the understanding of prose fiction in ESL classroom. SAGE Open, 7(2), p.2158244017709506.

Valiandes, S., 2015. Evaluating the impact of differentiated instruction on literacy and reading in mixed ability classrooms: Quality and equity dimensions of education effectiveness. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 45, pp.17-26.

Vernon, T., 2017. Pivotal response treatment: Empirically supported strategies to target social competencies and motivation in individuals with ASD. In Handbook of Social Skills and Autism Spectrum Disorder (pp. 187-196). Springer, Cham.

Wang, X. and Gupta, A., 2015.Unsupervised learning of visual representations using videos. arXiv preprint arXiv:1505.00687.

Wigfield, A., Gladstone, J.R. and Turci, L., 2016. Beyond cognition: Reading motivation and reading comprehension. Child development perspectives, 10(3), pp.190-195.

Young, B., 2015. Feedback Intervention Perceptions: Development and Validation of a Measure.