Literature review

In comparison to other countries in the world, Australia has relatively less significant pollution problem. However, keeping the overall area of the country into consideration, the rising rate of pollution in Australia cannot be neglected (Mackay et al. 2013). According to Fajersztajn et al. (2013), the emission of the harmful air borne particles increases the density of the atmospheric area leading to the increase in the reported cases of lung cancer and other cardiovascular. Apart from air there is noise pollution which is somewhat less hazardous in comparison to air, water and soil pollution but have significant amount of negative impact of the mankind (Fiedler & Zannin 2015). The main source of air and noise pollution in Australia is the construction industry. The emission of the fine particles from the raw materials of civil engineering field or building construction site is the main source of air pollution, coming just after the automobile emission. Construction industry also attributes to noise arising from the large scale machines which make the every like of human begin miserable (Kibert 2016).

The following report aims to provide a brief literature review about the source and hazards associated with the construction industry in the domain of air pollution and noise pollution, on stating the literature review, the report will highlight the main findings and the possible recommendation in order to cope up with this problem.

Globally air pollution is the reason for over four million premature deaths annually. Particulates causing air pollution are the complex mix of the chemicals emitted due to artificial human processes or natural processes that causes climatic change and change to the environment (Araújo e al. 2014). Civil engineering includes construction of the country’s infrastructure including, roads, stations, airports, dams, irrigation projects, bridges and more. It has been observed that construction activities poses great effect on the environment, due to which environment assessment is carried out in almost every construction activities done in today’s world (Debeleac 2013). Construction noise can be generated by the equipment used at the construction sites for the fabrication, modification, erection, demolition or removal of any structure including scraping and clearing up (Jain et al.2013) . Like the industrial equipment the construction equipment produces more noises of low frequency spectrum. The pile drives and the ballast cleaning machines can generate peak intensity noises of over 105 and 120 DB (Seixas et al. 2012). According to Hammad et al. (2016), there are five categories of construction equipment- the earthmoving equipment, the material handling equipment, the impact equipment, the stationary equipment, the material handling equipment and more. All these generated noises. The engine related noises are comparatively less intense than that of the impact equipment (Hammad et al. 2016). Other noises in the construction site includes the utilization of the jack hammers, cement mixers, the dump trucks, electric saws, welding machines and the tamping machines and hand drills.    (Hendrickson and Horvath) have identified five largest toxic air emissions from the construction site including the nitric dioxide, Sulphur dioxide and volatile organic compounds, toxic release to the air and the hazardous waste generated (Zolfagharian et al. 2012). They have estimated that the environmental emissions mainly occur for the four largest construction sectors in Australia namely the bridges, highway and other horizontal constructions, office buildings, other industrial facilities and residential unit and other construction such as tower, irrigation and the railroads (Darshana 2017).

Atmospheric pollution and the particulate matter

Exhaust gases from the building decoration materials, pollutants like formaldehyde, paints, paintings, asphalt, adhesives and a variety of volatile organic matters like straight chain hydrocarbons, aromatic hydrocarbons, halogenated hydrocarbons, ketones, aldehydes and alcohols are harmful for the respiratory system, circulatory system and reproductive system (Zolfagharian et al. 2012).. Construction site dust pollution mainly refers to the construction site levelling operations, concrete mixer, carpentry, sawdust, lime, stone and blackfill yarn (Huang et al. 2014). Some of the volatile particulates can be permanently retained in the lungs until death. The construction dust is mainly classified as PM10 – particulate matter less than 10 microns in diameter that is invisible to the naked eyes (Cheng et al. 2013). The PM10 penetrates deeply into the lungs and causes a wide range of health problems such as respiratory illness, bronchitis, asthma and even cancer (Thurston et al. 2015). The PM10 present in the construction sites comes from the exhausts of the diesel engine and heavy vehicles. This is called the diesel particulate matter (DPM) and consists of suphate, soot, silicates. According to Cheng et al. (2013) disease is also responsible for the emission of the carbon dioxide. Noxious vapor out of paints, treated woods, plastic, cleaner and other hazardous chemicals are used widely in the construction sites. According to Cheng et al. (2013), the air pollution due to the construction industry have increased in Australia with the fast urban development. The standards for the major environmental indicators such as the Sulfur dioxide emissions and the total air -suspended particulates (TSP)are much more than the international standards (Cheng et al. 2013).

It has been found that 72 % of the major cities of Australia including the municipalities and the and the provincial capitals have TSP more than 200mg/ m³ , whereas, as the per the international standard defined by the World Health Organization is 90 mg/m³ (Thurston et al. 2015).  The noise pollution on the construction site increases sleeping disorders, high blood pressure, eyes irritation, stress and even heart problems due to increase site activities and the heavy old vehicles used in the sites.

The particulate matter generated due to the engineering works has been found to be composed of inert carbonaceous cores with various layers of many absorbed molecules, including the metals, organic pollutants, biological elements and acid salts (Cheng et al. 2013).

Most of the industry associated particulate matters are smaller than 2.5 micron. This size can easily penetrate the terminal bronchioles and the alveoli and larger particles will primarily deposit in the primary bronchi and larger sized particles (as large as 10 micron) deposits in the nasopharynx (Cheng et al. 2013). A number of particles also fall in the ultrafine size range and generally dominates in the larger surface area of the environmental pollution. They are generally unstable and can grow in to larger particles by coagulation. These particle does not only penetrate the lungs and also can cross the air blood barrier (Losonczy 2012). Notably the existence of the particulate matters can be of several days in absence of any precipitation. Furthermore these particles have negotiable sedimentation rate and are not usually removed from the atmosphere by dry deposition.  

The health hazards caused by the pollutants due to civil engineering

Nitrogen Oxides- The short term exposure to the metallic and non-metallic oxides at concentrations more than 3ppm (parts per million) can decrease the lung function. Concentrations less than 3ppm can irritate the lungs and is enough to trigger asthmatic attacks (Zolfagharian et al. 2012). Long term lower exposure to the oxides can impair the lung function causing emphysema. Other effects that can be caused due to nitrogen oxide emission at certain conditions include the bleaching or the destruction of the plant tissues, premature falling of leaves, reducing threat of growth of the lungs (Anderson et al. 2012). It has also been found to deteriorate the fibres, corrode the metals and reduction of the visibility.

Furthermore the nitrogen oxides in presence of the sunlight can also react with the hydrocarbons and form smog or photochemical oxidants. Acidic precipitation is another factor that is caused due to the oxides of the nitrogen that affects both the terrestrial as well as the aquatic ecosystem.

Sulphur dioxide- The Sulphur dioxide reacts with the water vapour causing aerosols of corrosive sulphurous acid, which can react with air formic even more corrosive acid, Sulphuric acid. Sulphur dioxide only does not have a disturbing smell but also considerable affect the health (Anderson et al. 2012). It has been found to irritate the respiratory system and prolonged exposure to low concentrations can constrict the respiratory system, increase the mucus flow and cause inflammation in the bronchi causing acute respiratory distress. The elderly people and the asthmatics are more susceptible to this kind of effects. Concentrations greater than 6 parts by millions can be trigger irritation in the lungs and the throat. According to Brauer et al. (2012) concentration higher than 6 ppm also disrupts the normal defence system of the respiratory system against the pathogens. It has also been found to apparently increase the harmful effects of the breathing. Sulphur dioxide pose more toxic effects in presence of the acidic pollutants and liquid or the solid aerosols (Huang et al. 2014). Effects are found to be more pronounced in the mouth breathers; that is the people who are exercising or having head colds. Episodes of bronchitis have been found to be present in these people. Increased infections in the respiratory tract has been linked with low level of prolonged exposure to the acid aerosols and SO₂ (Thurston et al. 2015)..

Sulphur dioxide has been found to be affecting the plant species like pines and the legumes, white ash, red and the black oaks, alfalfa and the blackberry. Visible injury has been found in the sensitive plants when exposed to concentration as low as 0.12 ppm for 8 hours, and those having intermediate sensitivity has been found to be affected by the exposure to about 0.30ppm for 8 hours (Thurston et al. 2015). Ozone may act as a powerful irritant and can cause shortness of breath, chest pain, wheezing and coughing, repeated exposure to high levels of ozone causing the reduction in the lung functions, inflammation of the epithelial lining of the lungs and increased discomfort of the respiratory system (Anderson et al. 2012).

According to Seixas et al. (2012) exposing ears to prolonged noises more than 85 DB can lead to permanent hearing loss. The cochlea is the main sense organ that has got very delicate hairs for detecting the sound frequencies can get damaged due to prolonged exposure to the noises. If the exposure to high intensity noises cannot be controlled then the patient may suffer from hearing loss, buzzing sensation or the tinnitus, lack of sleep, headache and depression. Otitis media can occur in people of all age groups with prolonged exposure to the industrial sounds.

To strengthen the management and the supervision

Hussin et al. (2013) have proposed that management of the air pollutants at the construction site consists of activities such as ensuring the implementation of the work to a high level of competitiveness and quality. New technologies can be used to stop excessive wastage and pollution caused due to the usage of the raw materials. Planning of the controlling activities, putting in the appropriate scientific theories in to practice, proper resource management, quality control, automation and the mechanization of the processes can be helpful in neutralizing the air pollutants created by the industrial emissions (Debeleac, C., 2013).

Assuring correct procedures for minimizing the smokes from the exhausts, use of technologies for the recycling of the raw materials.  Harris& McCaffer (2013) have emphasized on the preconstruction management in the engineering site for preventing environmental hazards such as the inspection of the building conditions, the implementation of the policy of buying the equipment with low emission, limiting the area that required excavation, minimizing the amount of waste material stored in the site that can generate dust, regulating the speed limits of the vehicles in the construction site to minimize dust emission (Wu et al. 2016). Loading of the truck carrying the materials such that the wastes does not exceed above the walls. Harris & McCaffer (2013) have stated that use of the fossil fuels by the heavy equipment also contribute to air pollution. Introduction of the low pollutant engines called the next generation engines can be used for the fuel efficiency and reduction of the CO2 emissions (De Nevers et al. 2010).

There are other several methods for reducing the dust on the construction site such as spraying of the water or use of the water tanker with spray heads (Wu et al. 2016). Air pollutant control devices can be used to prevent different types of the pollutants both the gaseous and the solid from entering the atmosphere out of the smoke stacks. Electrostatic precipitators, cyclone separators, fabric filters can be used for removing the particulates from the gases (Miller et al. 2010). Proper incineration can be done for converting the VOC emissions in to carbon dioxide and water by combustion. Carbon capture storage can be done to capture the emitted carbon dioxide and then storing it below the ground by pumping it to the geologic layers (Miller et al. 2010). Biofiltration can be used to reduce the air pollution (Devinny et al. 2017) Some of the essential steps that can be taken to mitigate noise pollution involves proper evaluation of the noise levels by proper industrial hygienists or audiologists to analyse the results.  A sound level meter or a dosimeter can be used for the evaluation (Ye et al. 2012). If the noise levels exceeds 90 DB for prolonged 8 hours then hearing protectors should be used. Construction site are normally noisy, but certain steps can be taken to reduce the noises as much as possible. For example, boring can be used in place of pile driving as the latter generates much noises. Old equipment can be made quieter by the application of the sound absorbing materials (De Nevers et al. 2010). Noisy equipment should be kept far from the residences and the dwelling places of the staffs. Engineering controls such as modifying the equipment, retro fitting the existing equipment with damping material can be done to keep the workplace quieter.

Management decisions should be made on the work activities, shift rotation and dissemination of the workload to reduce the time of exposure to the noise equipment (De Nevers et al. 2010).  The construction companies should be based on the ISO14000 environmental management standards (Harris & McCaffer  2013).

Findings

According to Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) (2004), the direct impact of the civil engineering on the environment mainly occurs from its raw material. The actual impact on the overall environment varies on the basis of the amounts and the nature of the raw materials used. Australia State of Environment (2016) reports, in Australia, there have been a significant growth in the consumption of the construction’s raw materials during the last few years. During the year 1997 in Australia, 98 million tonnes of construction materials were generated and of which 99% is consumed in Australia only and only 1% was exported. This amounts to about 5200 kg per person of total raw materials of construction sites. Not only the main raw materials, the construction industry also require the use of the additional environmental pollutants like 27% of plastics, 55% of timber (mainly for residential buildings) and 12% of iron steel (ABS, 2018). All these products damage the environmental equilibrium via causing air pollution. However, different materials have different effect on the environment. This increase in rate of air pollution in Australia is rising with population.

 

Figure: Health and Environmental Effect of Hazardous Air Pollutants

(Source: Environmental Protection Authority Victoria, 2017)

ABC News Reports that the average number of people within the household have decreased from 3.3 persons to 2.6 persons since 1996. However, the average square areas of the floors of new houses have increased steadily with the last 15 years (ABC News, 2017). This increase in the total floor area by 28% signifies that there is increase in the business of civil engineering which in turn reflecting increase in the rate of air pollution.

Figure: Increase in the average floor area in Australia by year

(Source: ABS, 2013)

Conclusion

It is important to make a change in the global approach to the methods involved in the construction field taken in to account by the ecological technologies available nowadays. Implementation of the site control measures in each stages of the construction can be helpful in reducing the environmental impacts of engineering. Advanced technologies can be used in the construction sites. Some of the important gaps present in the field are the policy rules and the regulations. Lack of proper funding is another reason for the inability to buy the advanced Machines and monitoring in the construction sites. The nearby residents to the construction sites are the ones who are the victim of the sound and the air pollution. Thus it can be seen that both the air and the sound pollution caused by the civil engineering works can have serious impact on the environment as well as the life and hence remedial measures should be taken to neutralise its effect to some extent. 

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