Change in Quantity Supplied and Change in Supply

Part 1a)

Change in quantity supplied is expressed when with change in price leads to increase or decrease in the supply of a product. It is a movement along a supply curve that is expressed using different points on the supply curve. Increase in quantity supply (due to rise in price) is termed as “extension of supply’ and decrease in quantity supplied (due to fall in price) is termed as “contraction of supply” (Mankiw 2014). It can be shown in figure 1a (i). Whereas, change in supply is when the entire supply shifts either upwards or downwards because of changes in factors other than price (Hammock & Mixon 2016). As per the figure 1a (ii), when the supply curve changes to right, there is increase in quantity (Q* to Q2) and when the supply curve changes to left, there is decrease in quantity (Q* to Q1) because of other factors like technology, tastes and preferences, etc.

Figure 1a) Change in Quantity Supplied and Change in Supply

Source: (Mankiw 2014)

Part 1b)

If there is an outbreak of hostilities in Middle East, then the supply would be hindered. As a result, the supply curve will move towards left in Middle East. As a result, Australia would not be able to cope with a major oil supply disruption and would ultimately lead to market failure (Kelly 2018). On the contrary, in Australia, price for petrol will increase to meet the decreased supply. The same has been depicted through figure 1b (i), this will even show, once the price has increased, the demand for passenger cars will small engines will increase but less than the equilibrium demand as the consumption of fuel would be low as shown in figure 1b (ii)

Figure 1b) Outbreak of hostilities in Middle East and its effect

Source: (Baumol & Blinder 2015)

Part 1c)

As per Carrington (2016), electric cars are assumed to be 35% of new car sales in 2040, such that every fourth car will be an electric car. With growing demand of electric cars and assumption, the demand for battery powered bicycles will decrease (will shift to left) as electric and battery are substitutes such that decease in prices for battery bicycles will increase the demand for electric cars.

Part 2a)

Unit sales subsidy is a negative tax where seller’s price exceeds the consumer’s price such that it is in the overall interest of the tax. However, economically it can be termed as a wedge such the consumer’s pay less and the buyer’s receives more and this is possible when government bears the expenses (Atkinson & Stiglitz 2015). It can be given as:

Unit Sales Subsidy and Its Impact on Wheat and Precious Metals

Figure 2a) Unit Sales Subsidy

Source: (Atkinson & Stiglitz 2015)

Part 2b)

The subsidies affect the consumer based on the price elasticity of demand depending how much they have to pay when the demand is elastic or inelastic (Atkinson & Stiglitz 2015). Wheat’s demand is inelastic in nature depicting that no matter how much the price fall; the consumption of wheat will not have a drastic change in demand (Kaushal & Muchomb 2015, pp.25-42). This is shown in figure 2b) (i). In comparison, if we compare to a luxury product like diamond and gold (precious metals); the consumption will drastically increases even if the prices have not fallen to that level depicted in figure 2b (ii).

Figure 2b) (i) Inelastic Demand: Wheat

Source: (Atkinson & Stiglitz 2015)

 

Figure 2b) (ii) Elastic Demand: Precious Metals (Diamond, Gold)

Source: (Atkinson & Stiglitz 2015)

Part 2c)

Milk or all brands of milk are inelastic where there are no substitutes. Also, a product like milk is insensitive to change in price, as a result, consumer will continue to but it even if the price goes higher/ lower. The results would be that price elasticity of demand will be greater than price elasticity of subsidy where incidence on producers will be more than the consumers. The same has been depicted in figure 2c.

Figure 2c) Inelastic Demand: All Brands of Milk

Source: (Mankiw 2014)

Part 3a)

Perfect competition is not based on the theoretical base of abnormal profits. The abnormal profits are not allowed based on the assumptions on the functioning of perfectly competitive markets. The abnormal profits in industrial organization theory were given by Bain highlighting the structural characteristic which makes it distinct (Muiño & Núñez?Nicke 2016, pp.298-328). Also, as devised specific firm-internal characteristics are the considered to be main determinants for achieving abnormal profits in perfectly competitive markets’. Moreover, if a firm is endowed with rare and specific resources like in “resource based view” can result to be more competitive and to generate profits further. Other determinants “knowledge based view or market based view” can be considered other factors. However, these profits are solely on the dynamics of long run equilibrium value of the abnormal profits (Hirsch 2013, pp.741-759).

Part 3b)

Average total costs are the total cost by number of units produced.

èATC = Total Cost/ Output but

èATC = AVC (Average Variable Cost) + AFC (Average Fixed Cost)

Average Total Cost and How it Relates to Fixed and Variable Costs

The interaction of AVC and AFC make up to ATC; when the production increases, AFC goes on falling. Also, in the initial stages of production AVC even falls (Pindyck & Rubinfeld 2015). This can be shown by point A in the figure 3b.

Figure 3b) Average Total Cost

Source: (Mankiw 2014)

The AFC is at its minimum a point A because the firm is making full use of its production capacity. This depicts that the “law of variable proportions” is applied such that when fixed and variable factors are combined; the fixed factor is used more efficiently which leads to fall in ATC in short run (Jacoby & Brooman 2017, pp. 65-95). The diagram above depicts that the fixed factors are extensively used.

Part 3c)

Qualifies accountants are the ones who handle finances of a given product with minimizing the costs and maximizing the profits. In short, run, when we analyse that whether the accountants need to wash their car or not. They should evaluate that initially; there will be fixed costs like maintenance, insurance and others (Posner 2014). The variable costs would be labour and materials required during the car wash. However, when ATC and AVC are at their low, the costs would be high, but it would be higher if they go to service centre to get their car washed. As a result, initially, the quality accountants should wash their cars on their own.

Part 4a)

The price elasticity of demand for alcohol and tobacco in Australia is either inelastic or elastic. Although, there have been a continuous debate whether these are substitutes or are complements to each other but as per Subbarman (2017, pp.1399-1414), alcohol and tobacco are both substitutes and complements in Australia. The results from Australian National Drug Strategy shows that these two are not related rather are substitutes because both and in NDSH are illicit drugs, if one’s price increases, so is the demand of other increases but not equivalent to the first one (Substitutes for price). On the contrary, if one’s price increases, the demand of other decreases (Complements for usage). On the other hand, Wen, Hockenberry & Cummings (2014) had to say that alcohol and tobacco are weak complements and Kelly & Rasaul (2014, pp.89-114) mentioned it to be strong substitutes. However, demand for alcohol and tobacco has increasingly become inelastic in the 21^st century but the country like Australia has this as an unidentified factor. The higher levels of per capita consumption relates to inelastic demand which have the “own-price elasticity” of demand (Wong, Selvanathan & Selvanathan 2017, pp.799-823).

Price Elasticity of Demand for Alcohol and Tobacco in Australia

Part 4b)

Level of competition differs with each market. When analyzed from the perspective of real markets then agriculture market faces a perfectly horizontal demand curves for homogeneous proud in the industry with free entry and exit of firms. This market can be termed as perfectly competitive market (Baumol & Blinder 2015). Nevertheless, other markets are even highly competitive but they face high inelastic demand curves and relatively not that easy to enter and exit the market. Moreover, in case of monopoly or oligopoly, it implicitly or explicitly gets together in the setting prices and this does not rule out competitive behavior (Pindyck & Rubinfeld 2015). To depict each market’s competitive nature, figure 4b) is shown below from perfect competition to pure monopoly.

Figure 4b) Competitive behaviours in each market

Source: (Pindyck & Rubinfeld 2015)

Part 5a)

Total Revenue is the sum of all sales and marginal revenue is the addition to the total revenue by making changes one unit per change in the output. Algebraically, MR and TR can be given as:

As per the figure given in figure 5a), TR and MR relationship is described. In figure 5a)A; When TR rises to a point K (sales takes place at the give price and quantity)from 0 (where nothing is sold), it is maximum and further any selling of quantity would lead to fall in total revenue (Baumol & Blinder 2015). Secondly, in figure 5a)B; when the sales tends to diminish with each additional quantity, MR starts falling, but when TR becomes maximum, MR is zero that means no additional unit can further direct to rise in revenue. Later, as TR starts falling, MR starts becoming negative (Mankiw 2014).

Figure 5a) TR and MR curve

Source: (Pindyck & Rubinfeld 2015)

Mathematically, it can be derived as:

Part 5b)

MR curve is the change in amount for each and every additional unit to the total revenue. The MR curve slopes downwards because law of diminishing marginal returns applies (Pindyck & Rubinfeld 2015). This further state that as the quantity increases, the revenue derived for every additional unit will fall for the monopolist output.

Part 5c)

Marginal revenue curve is horizontal in the perfectly competitive market as MR is the demand curve and coincides with Average Revenue (Mankiw 2014). This is because a perfectly competitive market is price taker and is parallel to x-axis for any amount of quantity.

Part 6a)

Competitive Behaviors in Different Markets

Successful application of artificial intelligence (AI) will help autonomous cars to gain momentum in the industry of mainstream vehicles. Artificial Intelligence can bring long standing change in several aspects of manufacturing process in automobile industry. However, in order to implement such changes manufacturers first need to understand the underlying values and focuses on developing their analytical knowledge (Kaplan 2016). Successful implementation of AI might require some supplementary equipment. Hence, in the short run there will be not much effect on autonomous car supply (Dong et al. 2015, pp. 2301-2346). As adaption of new technology is subject to sufficient time the short run supply remains almost same.

The advent of AI technology encourages people to demand more autonomous cars. The artificial intelligence enables manufacturers to some additional features to the existing model of autonomous cars. The new technology might enhance greater security to the existing autonomous car models (Dong et al. 2015, pp. 2301-2346). The new features attract greater attention from the buyers. All these factors together contribute to an increase in demand for autonomous cars in the short run.

Figure 6b) Effect of AI on short run demand

Source: (Korinek & Stiglitz 2017)

Part 6c)

Price in the market is determined from the interplay of supply and demand. In the short run, the demand for autonomous cars increases as the added features attract more people to purchase autonomous cars. The supply in however cannot be altered as technological transformation needed sufficient time (Niewiadomski & Anderson 2017, pp. 29-49). The increased demand in combination with limited supply results in an increase in price. The following figure depicts the impact on price of autonomous cars in the short run.

Figure 6c) Effect of AI on short run price

Source: (Kaplan 2016)

Part 6d)

The situation however changes in the long run. In the long run the manufacturing process can completely adapt the new technology. This will result in an increase in supply of autonomous cars. There are two opposing forces acting of price. The increased demand pushes price up while increased supply creates a downward pressure on price. The ultimate effect on price depends on magnitude of the acting forces. Price moves in direction of the dominant force (Korinek & Stiglitz 2017). Accordingly, there are three possible cases

Case I

Figure 6d) (i) Change in supply exceed change in demand

Source: (Kaplan 2016)

Case II

Figure 6d) (ii) Change in demand exceeds that of supply

Total Revenue and Marginal Revenue Curve

Source: (Kaplan 2016)

Case III

Figure 6d) (iii) Change in demand is same as the change in supply

Source: (Kaplan 2016)

The four Australian Banks that account for being dominant in the banking sector are Westpac, Commonwealth, NAB and ANZ which is strength for the Australian economy. Also, the banks have not only reduced their dependence of wholesale funding but have also attracting domestic deposits (Weernink, 2016). According to Jericho (2018), they hold 75-80% of the market in housing and home loans. The productivity Commission discusses that after the global financial crisis accounted for financial stability which was meant to reduce competition but there was no slip in the net interest margins for these four banks further stating that the crisis did not affect these banks. Also, with growing competition, there hold in the market is increasing and has been acknowledging the Australian deposits, as a result, the cash rate and the interest rate is whooping high for the home and housing loans by these banks.

The banks growing hold could be used for reduce competition but in return it is making banks more profitable due to expense of the taxpayer. The strength of these banks is never ending as based o market capitalisation, it accounts within 25 top globally safe banks and the banks future growth and innovation will bring new changes in financial services that will be consumed, delivered as well as structured for financial stability (Fintech.treasury.gov.au, 2018).

References

Atkinson, A.B. & Stiglitz, J.E., 2015. Lectures on public economics. Princeton University Press.

Baumol, W.J. & Blinder, A.S., 2015. Microeconomics: Principles and policy. Cengage Learning.

Carrington, D. 2018. Electric cars ‘will be cheaper than conventional vehicles by 2022′. [online] the Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/feb/25/electric-cars-will-be-cheaper-than-conventional-vehicles-by-2022 [Accessed 28 Apr. 2018].

Dong, J.F., Sabastian, S.E., Lim, T.M. & Li, Y.P., 2015. Autonomous in-door vehicles. In Handbook of Manufacturing Engineering and Technology (pp. 2301-2346). Springer London.

Fintech.treasury.gov.au. 2018. The strength of Australia’s financial sector. [online] Available at: https://fintech.treasury.gov.au/the-strength-of-australias-financial-sector/ [Accessed 29 Apr. 2018].

Hammock, M.R. & Mixon, J.W., 2016. Microeconomic Theory and Computation. Springer-Verlag New York.

Hirsch, S. 2013. Abnormal profits and profit persistence: evidence from the European food industry. European Review of Agricultural Economics, [online] pp.741-759. Available at: https://hss.ulb.uni-bonn.de/2014/3567/3567.pdf.

Jacoby, H.D. & Brooman, F.S., 2017. The Level of Employment. In Foundations of Macroeconomics (pp. 65-95). Routledge.

Jericho, G. 2018. The big four banks are getting even more powerful – at Australians’ expense. [online] The Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/business/grogonomics/2018/feb/08/the-big-four-banks-are-getting-even-more-powerful-at-australians-expense [Accessed 29 Apr. 2018].

Kaplan, J., 2016. Artificial Intelligence: What Everyone Needs to Know. Oxford University Press.

Kaushal, N. & Muchomba, F.M., 2015. How consumer price subsidies affect nutrition. World Development, 74, pp.25-42.

Kelly, E. & Rasul, I., 2014. Policing cannabis and drug related hospital admissions: Evidence from administrative records. Journal of Public Economics, 112, pp.89-114.

Kelly, J. 2018. Syria strike could leave Australia running out of oil within weeks. [online] Theaustralian.com.au. Available at: https://www.theaustralian.com.au/national-affairs/defence/syria-strike-could-leave-australia-running-out-of-oil-within-weeks/news-story/af0364f4425c411e6abbd66f1967f908 [Accessed 28 Apr. 2018].

Korinek, A. & Stiglitz, J.E., 2017. Artificial Intelligence and Its Implications for Income Distribution and Unemployment(No. w24174). National Bureau of Economic Research.

Mankiw, N.G., 2014. Principles of macroeconomics. Cengage Learning.

Muiño, F. & Núñez?Nickel, M., 2016. Multidimensional competition and corporate disclosure. Journal of Business Finance & Accounting, 43(3-4), pp.298-328.

Niewiadomski, R. & Anderson, D., 2017. The Rise of Artificial Intelligence: Its Impact on Labor Market and Beyond. In Strategic Imperatives and Core Competencies in the Era of Robotics and Artificial Intelligence (pp. 29-49). IGI Global.

Pindyck, Robert S & Rubinfeld, Daniel L, 2015,Microeconomics, Eighth edition, Global ed, Harlow, United Kingdom Pearson

Posner, R.A., 2014. Economic analysis of law. Wolters Kluwer Law & Business.

Subbaraman, M.S., 2016. Substitution and complementarity of alcohol and cannabis: A review of the literature. Substance use & misuse, 51(11), pp.1399-1414.

Weernink, M. 2016. Australia: an economy in transition. [online] RaboResearch – Economic Research. Available at: https://economics.rabobank.com/publications/2016/february/australia-an-economy-in-transition/ [Accessed 29 Apr. 2018].

Wen, H., Hockenberry, J. & Cummings, J.R., 2014. The effect of medical marijuana laws on marijuana, alcohol, and hard drug use (No. w20085). National Bureau of Economic Research.

Wong, L., Selvanathan, E.A. & Selvanathan, S., 2017. Empirical analysis of Australian consumption patterns. Empirical Economics, 52(2), pp.799-823.