Physiological Theories of Motivation: Maslow, McGregor, and Herzberg

The motivation of employees is a complex issue and can involve the incorporation of a number of management policies. Discuss the three main theoretical approaches to motivation and evaluate at least three methods of employee motivation.

Motivation is fundamental to almost any area of life. Human activity is different from nature which has an intrinsic motivation, that is, it does its activity on its own without any further reflection. Motivation can be defined as the force that drives behaviour (Herzberg et al., 2011). It can also be described as the urge to attain a goal or a specific level of performance, resulting in a behaviour that is goal oriented (Pinder, 2014). There exist several competing theories which try to describe the nature of motivation. The approaches endeavour to either wholly or partially explain the specific behaviours of people at given times because of motivation changes over time according to the circumstances. These different theories are of significance to the managers because of the complexity of motivation and the fact that there exists no particular solution to what motivates employees to perform better. They are evidence of the fact that the behaviour and performance of people are influenced by many motives. Thus, the various theories function as a framework upon which a direct focus is integrated to the issue on the most appropriate way to motivate employees to work wilfully. This essay, therefore, considers three main theoretical approaches namely physiological theories (Maslow, McGregor and Herzberg),  cognitive theories ( Tolman, Vroom, Locke)  and social behaviour theories (Pavlov, Skinner, Watson). Additionally, four primary methods of employee motivation are discussed, and these include Scientific Management, Ergonomics, Human Relations Management and Management Systems.

These are theories that are concerned with offering solutions to how people think their perception and learning. The primary psychological theories of motivation include Maslow, McGregor and Herzberg theories.  According to Herzberg (Ball, 2012), there are two aspects of motivation namely hygiene and satisfiers factors. The hygiene factors include salary, status, company policies and whereas satisfiers comprise of the job itself, recognition, individual development and attainment. Herzberg asserts that the hygiene factors can only function as dissatisfier, that is they aren’t met. Contrariwise, their removal cannot warrant motivation. The satisfiers are the only ones that can motivate. Thus, dissatisfaction must not only be avoided, but the staff should also be given room to achieve their individual needs and aspirations.

Cognitive Theories of Motivation: Tolman, Vroom, and Locke

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory states that human needs arise in a sequence that is foreseeable. At the very base of the hierarchy are the fundamental physiological needs like shelter, food, and drink, followed by security (physical and emotional), thirdly social (feeling of acceptance), fourth in the hierarchy is self-esteem (status), and lastly we have self-actualisation which includes individual development. Maslow asserts that once the lower needs are met, the higher ones emerge. However, a lack that is satisfied doesn’t obviously satisfy behaviour. If the material needs which are common among all employees are fulfilled, the employees will be happy and motivated to a given degree. However, individual needs and expectations take the upper hand and become significant in motivation (Cherry, 2014).

McGregor’s theory X and theory Y is based on the premise that there are two fundamental types of management behaviours namely Theory X and Theory Y managers and are distinct from each other. Theory X assumes that people naturally do not like work and will attempt to evade it at all costs, and for individuals to perform they are to be coerced, monitored and threatened. Thus theory X managers are dictatorial and micromanaging, and teams under them tend to perform highly. The assumptions Theory Y are that individuals will intrinsically exert the same effort at work or during leisure, and if folks are committed to a goal, they will exercise self-control and discipline. Managers under Theory Y are democratic, supportive and empowering (Russ, 2011).

Cognitive theories are psychological approaches that endeavour to explain human behaviour by comprehending the thought processes. Vroom developed the expectancy theory in which he argued that people anticipate outputs for their inputs and their decisions behaviours are by three factors: the predicted performance result, the expected output for the effort, and the expected value of return. This theory describes motivation as a reality that is dependent on individual expectations of worth and value. This implies that when the people are making decisions regarding their behaviour, the leading question is ‘what’s in it for me?’ and therefore the managers should as well ponder on this matter while making the decisions on behalf of the subjects (Parijat and Bagga, 2014).

The Goal-setting Theory by Locke states that behaviour is driven by goals. The Obligation to goals and the effort and outcome emanating from this relies on the nature of the purpose. In other words, precise and challenging goals lead to better results as opposed to stress-free and unclear objectives. The decisions made by individuals about their conduct are dependent on their expected goals, and they pay attention to their behaviour towards the achievement of these goals. The goals that are more effective are those that are created with the involvement of the individuals as opposed to those generated externally and then imposed upon people (Locke and Latham, 2013)

Social Behavior Theories of Motivation: Pavlov, Skinner, and Watson

Edward Tolman developed the sign learning theory by studying rats that were used to navigating an intricate maze. Later on, the rats discovered the nearest path to the food at the corner of the maze. The rats could move to the second shortest route once the first way was blocked. Similarly, he observed that the rats had a cognitive map of the maze with each transfer of food. Thus, Tolman defined sign learning as developed anticipation that a single stimulus will be succeeded by another in a specific setting. Therefore, folks do not just respond to stimuli but instead they act based on their belief and attitudes. Individuals grow and learn, and thus they are likely to come up with new ideas as solutions to problems (Olson, 2015).

Social behaviour theories explain the association between the environment and the specific response of animals. Pavlov developed a theory called classical conditioning by examining dogs and observed that there are somethings that a dog does not necessarily need to learn. He presented a bowl of food to a dog and measured the secretions of its saliva. The dog did salivate at the presence of food without any learning, and he termed this as a reflex (unconditioned stimulus). However, he also learned that the same response would be triggered by any object or event that the dog associated with food. He, therefore, discovered that the dog had learned to associate food with his lab assistant. Thus, initially, the lab assistant was a neutral stimulus and later became a conditioned stimulus (Gormezano et al., 2014).

Operant conditioning was coined by B.F Skinner who was the idea that the external, observable causes of behaviour should gain more emphasis instead of attempting to understand the internal motivations and thoughts of individuals. Operant conditioning by Skinner is a process that tries to change behaviour with the help of positive or negative reinforcement. Positive reinforcers are awarded to a person after the expected conduct whereas negative reinforcers are awarded to eliminate an undesired behaviour outcome. The objective in both scenarios is to increase behaviour. Through this model, people associate a given act and a similar consequence (Skinner, 2011).

John B. Watson developed further the work of Pavlov and made an application to human beings. He observed an 11-month-old child by conditioning the infant to be afraid of a white rate by associating the rat with a deafening and scaring noise (unconditioned stimulus). Initially, the child displayed no fear at the presence of the rats, but after a continuous association of the white rat with jeering noise, the child developed the fear for rats. Thus the somewhat abnormal noise (UCS) prompted fear (UCR). This experiment proposed that classical conditioning could result in phobia in some people (Moore, 2011).

Primary Methods of Employee Motivation: Scientific Management, Ergonomics, Human Relations Management, and Management Systems

The primary methods of employee motivation include Scientific Management, Ergonomics, Human Relations Management, and Management Systems method. According to Scientific Management method, employees do not inherently find pleasure at work and thus need close monitoring, the managers should subdivide production into a chain of small jobs, and consequently, staffs are motivated to be industrious and increase output (Wren, 2011). Ergonomics method is the scientific approach which utilises human data when planning the place of work. The objective of this technique is to improve comfort, security and efficiency of employees by designing the workplace. This approach entails the strategy and assessment of errands, careers, products, companies, workplaces and systems to harmonise them with the wishes, talents and limitations of the staff (Cañas et al., 2011). 

The human Relations Management method of motivation involves the roles and responsibility of the human resource management about attracting, developing, and retaining the right number of competent employee to undertake responsibilities mandatory to the attainment of the goals of the company. Some of the aspects of this method include orientation and training, performance appraisal, wages, incentive compensation, employee compensation among others. The objective of this technique is to ensure that the employees feel that the organisation is concerned with their personal lives apart from the wages it remits to them (Armstrong, 2014).

Management Systems method of motivation is an approach where the management system supports employee motivation through setting goals that are precise, achievable and fair response by the management. An efficient management system doesn’t only consider the top performers but also the middle and low performers. This method encourages the setting of performance standards, defines the primary qualifications for each job position, and balanced system of requirements. Those staff’s not achieving the set performance standards is not to expect recognition (Kerzner, 2013)

References

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Herzberg, F., Mausner, B. and Snyderman, B.B., 2011. The motivation to work (Vol. 1). Transaction publishers.

Kerzner, H., 2013. Project management: a systems approach to planning, scheduling, and controlling. John Wiley & Sons.

Locke, E.A. and Latham, G.P., 2013. Goal setting theory, 1990.

Moore, J., 2011. Behaviorism. The Psychological Record, 61(3), p.449.

Olson, M.H., 2015. An introduction to theories of learning. Psychology Press.

Parijat, P. and Bagga, S., 2014. Victor Vroom’s expectancy theory of motivation–An evaluation. International Research Journal of Business and Management (IRJBM), 7(9), pp.1-8.

Pinder, C.C., 2014. Work motivation in organizational behavior. Psychology Press.

Russ, T.L., 2011. Theory X/Y assumptions as predictors of managers’ propensity for participative decision making. Management Decision, 49(5), pp.823-836.

Skinner, B.F., 2011. About behaviorism. Vintage.

Wren, D.A., 2011. The Centennial of Frederick W. Taylor’s The Principles of Scientific Management: A Retrospective Commentary. Journal of Business and Management, 17(1), p.11.