Background

Write a research Paper on the threats, attacks and vulnerabilities of the Internet of Things and the issues hindering a rapid, smooth and fluid implementation of the IoT infrastructure in smart cities. 

The design, development, adoption and implementation of the idea of internet of things has been progressing slowly over the years due to simultaneous development in supporting technology such as deep learning, embedded systems and sensors and wireless networks such cellular networks, Wi-Fi, ZigBee and Bluetooth, Alrawais et al (2017). The evolution of IoT depends on the development and innovations in the other system that back up a smooth implementation such as digital communication networks, automatic devices and sensors and control systems.  

In reference to Apvrille, Roudier & Tanzi (2015, May), a large percent of the world population is now living in urban centres. With the tight budgets and spaces, these cities will face immense pressure in utilization of the resources such as fresh water, electricity, transport systems, waste collection and pollution. For a better quality of life and minimized resource utilization, smart cities are the solution, connected through intelligent physical entities via a network, Internet of Things. The “things” forming the primary pillars of the IoT infrastructure, collect and generate a lot of data. The data is analysed and managed within the servers located within the cloud or the fog domains. The physical entities such as sensors do not have the capacity to compute nor store data hence transmit the data to the cloud. The use of wireless networks to transmit data exposes the whole system to threats and attacks that compromise the data privacy.

Establishment of the IoT infrastructure faced many challenges in the design and implementation of the new technology.

Chang, V. (2016) illustrates that the time for the adoption of the internet to connect physical entities such as sensors to provide services to the people in large cities is here. This new invention according to the author, is favoured by the wide acceptance and connection to the internet by the users using computers and mobile phones. The author notes the following as the key challenges to the implementation of IoT in the European cities including research and innovation into discovery of new products that can be connected to the IoT, design a new privacy guide for the IoT framework, security mechanisms to protect the infrastructure, formation of an ethics and code of conduct between developers and the consumers and lastly implement cloud computing for IoT. The author concludes that the world cannot run away from the future but rather face the challenges and make the impossible possible.

Literature Review

According to Edwards (2014). The central servers are categorized into cloud and fog computing domains according to the location within the Internet of Things infrastructure. Cloud computing provides central data resource management functionalities while fog computing operates on the edges of the network connecting the IoT providing data management to small quantities of short term data. Fog domain compliments the cloud platform in performing short-term data analysis without having the electronic devices sent the data to the cloud that involves long distances and time. The cloud can be compared to the human brain while the fog domain is the spinal code, only responsible for short term quick reflexes.  

In this article we are focussing on issues and vulnerabilities in the IoT in smart cities, Crasta et al (2018). The issues are categorized into cloud issues such as channel attacks, data link layer attacks and control plane attacks by malicious unauthorized access by internal users or “man-in-the-middle’. The fog computing issue discussed is authentication and trust issues.  The research focusses on the security vulnerabilities of the IoT and the issues hindering a rapid, smooth and fluid implementation of the IoT infrastructure in smart cities.   

The internet of things is projected to significantly support viable development of the imminent smart cities, Hills (2016).  The authors determine that the difference in the architecture of the connected devices and their simplicity will hinder the implementation of IoT infrastructure in major cities. In the article, peripheral nodes such as sensors, mobile phones, computers and other electronic devices, unrelated in structure, function and operating firmware need to be connected in a highly intellectual manner to ensure efficiency as a system and top quality services delivered to the citizens inhabiting that particular city.  To mitigate the issues, the researchers illustrate how an intellectual management framework should be used to deliver IoT in our cities. The article concludes with a need to properly select the physical entities to be used in the IoT framework.

Special issues affect the development and the future of smart cities, Komninos, Pallot and Schaffers (2013). The authors determine that the future of the smart cities in the urban areas rests on the ability of the developers to code for a system that operates on a computer algorithm which allows high levels of urban inhabitants’ involvement in co-creating the system related to data protection, rights and policies and the integration of all the stakeholders such as the government, companies, businesses and learning institutions in the innovation ecosystem. The research also identifies the aspects of the social and economic opportunities that will be developed by the use of IoT.

The internet of things is able to provide diverse end systems with open access to city data for the design, algorithms coding and deployment of a variety of useful digital devices, Zanella, Bul, Castellani and Zorzi (2014). The authors describe the different components of the IoT infrastructure and the networking architecture not limited to the peripheral nodes such as sensors, smart home gadgets, street lights, vending machines, routers and gateways and computer servers. The article illustrates the web service architecture, data link and network technologies able to cover vast geographical urban areas and lastly the devices which include servers, gateways and peripheral devices. The researchers analysed the solutions to implementation of IoT in Padova, Italy based on the design by Chiang et al (2018).

Providing information on dynamic markers, Falliere, Murchu, & Chien, (2011), the authors propose a mechanism based on the IoT to link the physical entities within the urban areas to the cloud based information founded on the proximity communication. The dynamic augmented reality markers are supported by an IoT architecture to enable location and estimation of objects positions. The article illustrates the different cases into which the internet of things can be used apart from the AR markers.

Reviewing the integration of Claudio paradigm and the IoT, Gao Li, Xiao & Wei (2014), conclude that the data protection aspects of the integration are not fully protected but vulnerable to malicious intentional attacks. The authors determine that data privacy and data losses are the biggest challenges to securing the cloudioT paradigm integration into the IoT infrastructure. The researcher however, do not provide the specific data vulnerabilities on the security layers and hence this research seeks to address the loopholes and information gaps.  

Reviewing the challenges in smart cities and explaining the architecture of the internet of things, Dhumale, Thombare, Bangare and Gawali (2017), explains that the physical entities connected together to form the internet of things interface and enable users to obtain functional services from them. The article focuses on the services that can be offered by the internet of things infrastructure such as traffic monitoring, garbage management, building monitoring, detection of air and noise pollution, energy consumption and lighting. The authors describe the conceptual design of the smart city internet of things network topology based on the web service architecture.

Providing insights on the concepts of IoT in developing smart cities, Talari et al (2017), describe how the physical entities forming the physical layer of the IoT framework such as electronic devices make the human race inhabiting a smart city smarter. The article explains the layers of the IoT into layers namely the perception layer made up of the sensors, cameras etc., the network layer, made up the network technology such as ZigBee, wireless sensor networks and cellular networks and gateways and the application layer not limited to smart homes, power lines, street lines, demand and fault detection systems and security surveillance. The authors review the real examples of cities in the world such as Amsterdam, Padova, Nice, Busan, Chicago and New York cities. The paper illustrates the challenges facing the implementation of the IoT infrastructure in smart cities not limited to security of the devices and data being transmitted, legal and social implications, reliability and barriers such as frameworks, providers and users.

Focusing on the network threats and vulnerabilities Moreno, Montero, Huedo and Llorente (2017) give insights on the challenges facing the data link layer in the transmission of data between the physical entities connected to the cloud and fog servers. The paper focusses on the limitations of the cloud and fog based computing environments interconnections to the internet of things framework. The threats include data threats, security breaches and network failure. The authors offer solutions to the threats, suggesting simple interface in the designing of the second and third network layers. With more advanced knowledge on the specific data threats, the paper leaves room and forms the basis for this advancement in research to describe the specific network vulnerabilities in the data plane, control plane and side channel, Rodolfo et al (2010).

Addressing the physical layer security of the wireless networks, Liu, Hsia-Hwa and Wang (2017) exploit the nature of transmission through the different wireless network technologies and how it affects the privacy of the data and secure authentication.  The authors explain the PHY-security technology in securing data transmission in wireless networks. The researchers conclude that: unauthorized access, MITM(man-in-the-middle) attacks and malicious insider attacks are the primary data threats to implementation of integrated fog and cloud computing to the IoT framework.

Providing information on the emergent developments in cloud computing, fog computing and the IoT framework in smart living, the writers address the type of data collected and generated by the peripheral nodes making up the physical layer of the internet of things infrastructure. The authors explain that the data collected and generated from the IoT system in the smart cities is considered private to the consumers and users. This provides a need to secure the data and increase the user confidence in privacy options and allow more data sharing to build a more sophisticated system that addresses the service needs of the city inhabitants. Following this review and the objective of developing a system that configures the daily life, it is important to research on the specific data threats and vulnerabilities in cloud and fog computing and the other issues that slow down the process of implementation of smart cities since the future was deemed here a while back.

The paper intents to provide a comprehensive list of the attacks and vulnerabilities that the data in the IoT system is exposed to that is categorized into data and control plane attacks and hidden channel attacks in the cloud computing domain and trust and authentication issues in the fog domain.

The research focuses on the challenges that face the smooth and fluid implementation of the IoT infrastructure in the modern cities while also providing the mitigations to the highlighted challenges.    

The qualitative and quantitative research methods are used for collection of top quality data to be used to generate the most accurate report of the findings collected and analysed in the field.

In the preceding researches, a stratified sampling techniques was used to determine the cities to be used for the case studies. In this research, a stratified sampling techniques was used to obtain the city samples to be used in the research.

In data collection, the following methods were previously used in the field.

1. Structured questionnaires:  A set of predetermined questions written on paper are given to the research participants and they allowed to give their answers in written form on the topic of study. The research questions maybe be closed ended giving an option for a yes or no answer or open ended questions that allow the participant explain more.   
2. Structured interviews: the interviewer and the interviewee engage in a constructive conversation that is tightly and strictly by a set of predetermined questioned asked by the researcher relating on the subject of IoT in smart cities.
3. In-depth interviews: a form of interview between the researcher and the participants that is open and informal allowing the interviewee air their feelings and thoughts about the subject matter more. The interview is guided by an unstructured or semi-structured sets of questions that relate to the subject matter.
4. Focussed group discussions: a system of interview more than one participant is allowed to hold a discussion and converse relating on the subject matter while the researcher listens, takes short notes or voice records the debate while also allowed to interrupt with a series of inquiry questions.
5. Structured observation: the researcher visits the case study area and notes the activities carried out by the research participants, taking notes in a pre-structured form.
6. Participant observation: the researcher inter-mingles with the study group, taking part in the activities, listening to their conversations and asks questions relating to the topic of study.

In the research, an in-depth interview was used to collect data in the field in the cities. It involved conducting an open and informal interview with the participants who were largely the cities’ top leadership, network IT administrators and city residents on their opinions, feelings and thoughts about the different aspects of the IoT infrastructure within the city.  

Smart cities are based on the IoT infrastructure to offer e-services to the city residents. The system utilizes the data shared by the users and consumers or generated by the physical entities such as sensors and cameras. The protocols and policies are vulnerable to data threats and thus are not 100% secure. Such vulnerabilities affecting the cloud and fog domains include;

Hidden channel attacks.

These attacks are based on the ability to read signals produced from a negative from the normal usage of the system components. The hidden signals are able to determine the secret and data being transmitted on the network. Exploitation of the network and thus access to the data and network content is utilized and made possible by reading the signals generated. These are physical attacks, exploited through the quantum study of the computer system and the network. The physical attack can be categorized into passive and active attacks, Hills (2016). Passive attacks occur when the attacker does not interfere with the device being targeted, the attacker analyses the device’s physical quantities such as power consumption and duration to execute commands.

In active attacks, the attacker modifies the device’s environment and or data inputs to interfere with the device’s normal functioning. The attacks can be classified into non-invasive attacks, that does not leave any trace of the attacker’s actions, semi-invasive attacks which include slight modification of the device that can be reversed such as unscrewing the device and invasive attacks that involve permanent interference of the device’s circuitry such as electronic memory devices, Karnouskos (2011, November).

The Side channel assault is a form of reverse engineering in the technological system. The electronic circuits and Software programs are naturally broken as they create discharges or a mean of correspondence as side effects which creates it feasible for an aggressor deprived of entrance to the hardware itself to conclude how the circuit functions and also what information it is preparing. Time, warm and electromagnetic discharges are reasonable wellsprings of data for an aggressor. Since these spillages don’t play a part in the activity of circuit itself since they are just symptoms of it working   the utilization of them to perform figuring out has earned the term ‘side-channel examination’s or side-channel assault. For organized frameworks, time based assaults are the most achievable and have been misused. Frameworks that utilization memory reserves are especially defenseless against timing-based assaults in light of the noteworthy distinction in execution of a given area of code in view of whether gets to the reserve hit or miss and power a slower read or keep in touch with principle memory, Hills (2016).

There are a variety of quantum properties that can allow the attacker gain malicious access to the network or its data. These are:

Duration of computations analysis.

Computational fault analysis.

Sound [produced analysis.

Power usage analysis.

Electromagnetic attacks.

 Data plane attacks.

With the development of more secure network layer protocols, attackers develop better exploitation tools to take advantages of the network vulnerabilities in the layers. Data planes in network routers use software programmable chips for packet control. These software possess vulnerabilities and thus susceptible to unauthorized data access. Data planes functions in the forwarding of traffic data packets according to the algorithm from the control panel. 

According to Falliere (2011), Traffic diversions are security vulnerabilities that can be exploited within the data plane and allow the data transmitted within the network to be send to a different destination that was not intended to. Such traffic diversions within the data plane allow the attacker to access to private data, deny service or modify completely the whole network. These attacks are made easy through modification of the API network’s software by malicious individuals. The modified API allows destruction of data flow and thus can allow transfer, access and deletion of private data transmitted in the network.

Attackers can utilize the ARP-cache poisoning exploitation tool to gain access to the network and spoof the data plane. This attacks by the man-in-middle can allow data modification or eavesdropping.

Control plane attacks.

This plane is the control management of the network. The plane is controlled by the software defined network controller that signals the router connections to the devices, constructs a routing table from the information generated of the topology and system configuration. This panel controls the flow of data packets within the network from the server to the peripheral nodes and back to the server. The following are vulnerabilities in the control plane according to Hosseinian-Far, Ramachandran & Slack (2018).

Architectural bottleneck; this software vulnerability exists in the software defined network architecture. When an attacker intentionally generates a large number of network data flows that floods the network, the bottleneck vulnerability is exploited and allows the attacker control over the entire network.

Switch table flooding and authentication spoofing attacks exploits the software defined network and results in dropping the authentic switch connections hence allow the attacker access and inject malicious messages into the control plane.

Loss of complete or partial encryption in the software defined network allows the man in the middle attacks by sniffing the control panel and gain access to sensitive and private data being transmitted within the network, Apvrille, Roudier & Tanzi (2015, May).  

Authentication and trust issues.

Fog computing domains are different in ownership from cloud computing in that they can be owned by different parties while serving the same functional department. These fog computers operating on the edge of the network making up the internet of things may be owned by cloud-server providers, service providers or private individuals and companies, Falliere (2011).

Fog computing domain is designed in such a manner that issues such as giving a unique and persistent identity to peripheral nodes, how to tackle with intentional and accidental abnormality and device reputation review are well organized to maintain a trust model in connection. In such instances, rogue peripheral devices such as mobile devices or computers may coax part of the IoT system to connect to it and thus receive data not meant for it. Such rogue devices are a huge threat to private data and security, Apvrille, Roudier & Tanzi (2015, May).   

Authentication is an important security feature that enables only identified devices to connect to the fog computers and obtain data or resources. Communication protocols provide network identifiers such as IP addresses to identify the connected devices and thus authenticated them and exchange data.

Shared keys using the different models of data encryption that are asymmetrical and symmetrical are set up using a trusted secure protocol layer such as HTTPS or TLS. The server and the peripheral device seeking connection exchange and verify authentication certificates.

Confidentiality

Secrecy intends to preserve the divulgence of private also, critical data. In the meantime, each and every data is put away on geologically scattered areas, classification seizures into a chief matter. Numerous systems are utilized in order to save the privacy from that, encryption is therefore generally utilized technique. Be that as it may, it is abstemiously a costly technique. In order to guard fortification, a safe distributed storage advantage is composed which is based upon people in universal cloud structure and also by utilizing cryptographic frameworks, fortification is accomplished, to Hosseinian-Far, Ramachandran & Slack (2018).

A new-fangled approach anticipated by utilizing the chain of command of Peer to peer notoriety framework to protect the security. It picks up it with virtualized barrier. Depicts that the characteristic based cryptography would be utilized to protect security and keep up security in a cloud based EHR framework and patients can share information in an adaptable, versatile and dynamic way. Encryption is regarded as the most broadly utilized information securing strategy in disseminated computing since it has numerous downsides. It requires a very high computational power. The scrambled information must be unscrambled each and every time as a question is run so it lessens the general database execution. Numerous strategies are displayed to guarantee better encryption as far as better security or the tasks, to Hosseinian-Far, Ramachandran & Slack (2018).

A practise projected recommends that by utilizing a few cryptographic practises than just a single which can increment the general throughput. Information is scrambled utilizing these strategies in every cell of a table in cloud. At whatever point a client needs to make a question, the inquiry parameters are assessed against the information put away, Falliere (2011). The inquiry comes about are too decoded by the client not simply the cloud so it expands the general execution. Another technique called end-to-end approach based encryption utilizes diverse strategies to encode and unscramble information.

The decoding keys are discharged by the Trust Authority empowering a client to get fine grained get to control openly mists. Additional approach called completely Homomorphic encryption is additional arrangement which can provide after effects of estimation performed on encoded information as opposed to the crude information. It builds the information privacy and better encryption.

Issues and challenges against smart city implementation.

Structures of governance are a hindrance to the adoption of smart cities due to the unwillingness of the political class and the inability of the departments to agree on a single functional structure with centralized services. Governmental frameworks and policies a four or five year terms in office. This restricts the individual leaders’ inability to adopt technological innovations since the processes do not take a short time, Falliere (2011). The political cycles also deny the political leaders the chance to think beyond their terms in office. These political policies, decisions and frameworks slow down the processes of planning, designing, adoption and implementation of these long time infrastructural plans beyond political cycles.

The different departments such housing, water and sewerage, transport and security are each organized in departments offering services using their limited resources and budgets. The isolated service provision programs and structures hinder the adoption of the centralized cloud and fog based internet of things system and framework of smart cities more so due to the high cost of start-up that would stretch the departments’ already stretched budget, Fallieres (2011), use of technology changes the quantity and amount of data, complexity of the regulatory mechanisms in place and liability issues.

The implementation of internet of things to deliver e-services to the city inhabitants is a valid idea with positive social and economic impacts. However, the collection and generation of user data raises the issues of liability to the involved departments. The process of data harvesting to increase the quality of services delivered to the city inhabitants generates a lot data that can be considered private such as daily routine data, social identity, personal communication information and health information and therefore would raise questions on protection, privacy and liability, Alrawais et al (2017). Other issues of liability are due to failure of technology and who to be blamed from the software developer, manufacturer of the hardware components or the provider and configurator of the application data.

Major urban centres face major financial challenges when it comes to implementation of smart technology in the city. Most administrations fail to value the economic and social value of the digital opportunities to be delivered by IoT infrastructure in the smart cities. Although most technological investments call for lesser financial budgets than the roads and building infrastructure, most organizations and governments are unwilling to fund such moves. Service proving companies such as those responsible for water, sewage, garbage and traffic find it difficult to invest in new technology because they believe it would result in a lower profit margins and render already installed infrastructure non-functional and wasted yet is returning acceptable levels of profits. The companies therefore do not invest in new technology even if they understand it would result in more customer or user satisfaction, Alrawais et al (2017).

Social economic of segregation are never addressed in debates concerning design and implementation of new technology. Therefore, those city inhabitants with low financial, educational and social capita feel left behind in the transformation of the smart city. Such examples include the elderly, low-income individuals and the disabled. The fear that internet of things technology will deepen the social inequality and cultural gaps already existing in today’s society. 

Solutions.

Provision of primary of enforcers of life is the starting point for the design, co-creation and deployment of smart city guided by the technological framework. Such enforcers include education, employment opportunities, quality health and social support mechanisms. Technology should therefore be used to add value to such systems already put in place.

Establishment of a committed organizational and leadership structure that would lead the process of designing, adoption and implementation of smart technology of IoT in the smart cities. This leadership structure should be able to outlive the political cycles and its primary objective should be that of an independent body mandated to foresee the development of the future smart cities.

Citizen’s engagement in the design and co-creation of the internet of things system with properly developed policies and rights to protect all the stakeholders not limited to data protection, liability and insurance mechanisms and customer service.  The open design would enable the citizens and communities create and improve the city, service and data sharing mechanisms.

Stakeholders engaged in the design process to create a central system that is objectively build to deliver quality services and care to the city inhabitants while maintaining or increasing the stakeholder’s profit margins. This would solve the financial challenges facing the implementation process and hence increase the rate of adoption riding on the already established infrastructure.

Advantages/disadvantages of the report.

This report explains the concept of the IoT adoption as a primary form of infrastructure in smart cities as a mechanism to offer quality services to the city inhabitants such as smart homes, smart health, smart energy saving mechanisms and on demand collection of waste and garbage.

The report further more illustrates the network vulnerabilities that arise from the integration of cloud and fog computing domains into the heterogeneous physical entities of internet of things. The paper focuses on the data plane attacks, control plane attacks and side channel attacks of loud computing.

The report discusses the challenges facing the adoption and implementation of smart technology in the cities of the world. Solutions are offered to mitigate the challenges.

However, the report fails to offer specific solutions to the network vulnerabilities in the integration cloud and fog computing partly due to the ever changing software development and therefore attacking prowess of the hackers.

Conclusion.

The life of human beings has been intertwined with their environment and connected to the internet of things. The IoT has been designed and deployed into the smart cities to offer efficient and top quality services over the internet. However, they development of the IoT infrastructure faces many challenges in the implementation from securing the data generated by the peripheral “things” such as sensors to social, economic and political challenges.

Since the IoT in smart cities is the future, and this future is already here, mitigations against the challenges should be implemented to ensure a smooth and fluid implementation of the infrastructure to better the quality of mankind. 

References

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