Comparing Content and Process Theories

Motivation can be defined as the force which encourages employees to achieve high levels of performances. There are several factors both internal and external, which are said to motivate employees to achieve high levels of performances. The external factors consist of organisational policies, work pressure, compensation policies, pay packages and team cooperation. The internal factors consist of attributes and perceptions of employees which urge them to achieve high levels of performance (Healy 2016). These different external and internal factors give rise to two categories of theories of motivation namely, content theories and process theories. The content theories study that employees are motivated to perform highly due to their internal attributes like their will to experience job satisfaction and get rewards. These employees do not need to be pushed or threatened and perform highly to achieve career developments. The theories by Herzberg, Maslow and McGregor form a part of the content theories. The second category of theory, the process theory mainly deals with motivating factors existing within organisations which encourage employees to achieve high levels of performances (Aithal and Kumar 2016). The Goal theory, Equity theory and Expectancy theories form a part of this category of motivation theories. The paper would deal with these motivation theories with special emphasis on the content theory. It would start initially by comparing the two categories of theories namely, content theory and process theory. The next section would with hierarchy of needs theory by Maslow and then go on to study the criticisms against the theory. The next theory to be studied would be McGregor’s theory and criticism against it. The theory content theory to be studied would McGregor theory X and theory Y motivation theory. The final section would explore the criticisms against McGregor’s theory and take into account Hofstede’s model to study the theory.

General framework:

The theories of motivation in general can be divided into two broad categories namely, content theories and process theories of motivation. The content theories of motivation takes into account factors which energise, encourage or restrain people to do actions or to refrain from doing them. The process theories study how actions of human being can be energised, encouraged or restrained by certain factors (Healy 2016).

Figure 1. The two broad classifications of motivation theories

(Source: Author)

Differences between content and process theories of motivation:

The following are the difference between the content and the process theories:

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

The basic concept:

The content theories of motivation delve into internal factors which energise, motivate or restrain people from doing actions. The content theories thus, study motivation from the view of the individuals. For example, the theory of motivation proposed by Abraham Maslow, also known as Maslow’s hierarchy of needs takes into the five needs that impact the motivation of employees in the workplaces. According to Lee and Hanna (2015), Maslow’s theory takes into account the basic requirements of people which impact their motivation levels. The employees in organisations often set their goals and priorities. Aged employees are more concerned about saving while the younger employees are more concerned about investing. Rise in salary motivate lower level employees while upper level managers are motivated to perform better by promotions and increasing decision-making power (Aithal and Kumar 2016). This discussion clearly reveals that the theory is applicable very much to the workplaces.

The process theories of motivation study the external factors which energise and motivate people from doing certain things. Thus these theories give more importance to factors which motivates people from doing certain things or achieve certain goals. For example, Vroom’s expectancy theory, unlike the content theories of Herzberg and Maslow separates effort from performances and outcomes (Hur 2017). The theories states that expectancy among employees to bring about the career development is the outcome of availability of right resources like a supportive team leader and cooperative team members. These employees can also expect to get positive appraisals if they are skilful. Thus, according to the above discussion process theories study motivation as a product of external factors rather than internal factors (Healy 2016). 

Implications:

The implications of content theories are that people are motivated to do or not to do certain actions due to their own instincts. The content theories like Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and Herzberg’s two factor theory stress on the perceptions of people regarding job satisfaction, behaviour and rewards systems.  These theories point out those deficiencies within individuals create tensions that trigger certain behavioural responses (Mawere et al. 2016). These theories emphasise that people are motivated to achieve targets which they perceive as difficult to achieve at their present levels of capabilities. For example, average performing employees are motivated to work harder to get incentives and appraisals. These employees at the same tend to achieve meaningful rewards (Aithal and Kumar 2016).

The process theories on the other hand point out the factors external factors like extrinsic awards which motivate employees to work hard to achieve their targets. The content theories form base of the all the theories of motivation but cannot be applied directly to workplaces. Although theories like Maslow’s theory are hugely applicable in the practical world they are not a part of the content theory. The content theories have failed to qualify the process theory criteria and have been dropped from the list (Healy 2016).

Criticisms Against Maslow’s Theory

Maslow had developed his theory based on the judgment of needs by the humans, as he had a better concept regarding the needs that can satisfy the personal gains of the human beings. He had identified that if the needs are not met in a proper manner then it will hamper the proper functioning of the individuals in a healthy manner. He had identified that most of the individuals depend on five types of need that should be in a hierarchical order so that the highest form of the need can be satisfied followed by the lowest needs (Hur 2017).

The physiological needs form the base of the triangle, which indicates that it is the basic need of the individuals. The elements that are part of this need include air, food, shelter and water, which are the basic requirements of the individuals to sustain in this world. The employees who are working in an organization needs to have a basic salary from where they can satisfy their basic needs and have a proper condition of living so that they can be productive within the organization (Lee and Hanna 2015). The reason behind this need is that a hungry employee cannot concentrate on the organizational procedures, which may affect the level of productivity within the company.

The second layer of the triangle consists of the safety needs, which can only be considered after the physiological needs of the individuals are met in a proper manner. This is where the individuals require a secure place of work, which is free from threats and harms through an internal or an external manner. The reason behind this need is that the employees can be more productive if the organization can provide safety and security to the individuals regarding the job that they are performing within the company (Aithal and Kumar 2016).

The third level of needs as identified by Maslow is known as social needs, which can be provided after the safety issues have been met in an efficient manner. The social needs are those, which will help the employees in participating in events that are organized by the society such as picnic and other events. This will help the employees in living within the society so that they do not get the feeling of being an outcast within the external environment (Hur 2017).

The esteem needs form the fourth level of the triangle that has been identified by Maslow. It involves the approvals that the employees get from others and the self-respect that the employees possess. The introduction of award systems within the organization will help the employees in being recognized with respect to their achievements within the company (Moradi, Shekarchizadeh and Nili 2015). This will help the employees in being motivated and increase its productivity level for the firm as well.

McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y Motivation Theory

 

Figure 2. Figure showing Maslow Need theory

(Source: Aithal and Kumar 2016)

The top tier of the triangle represents the need of self-actualization, which helps the individual in being capable of developing their needs to the fullest potential. This will help the employees in gaining a competitive advantage within the organization. The reason behind this need is that it helps the employees in being a valuable asset within the organization where they are currently working (Hur 2017).

The factors that have been identified by Maslow will help the employees in being recognized within the organization due to its accomplishments. This will help the employees in satisfying their needs of esteem, which will help them in improving their performance of business as well. The financial security of the employees is also important, as it will make the employees financially stable so that they can be independent and work in a better manner towards the organization (Moradi, Shekarchizadeh and Nili 2015). The company will be able to achieve its organizational goals, as most of the employees will be able to increase its level of production for the firm as well. The other factor is that a work force that is healthy can be promoted within the organization by providing incentives and rewards to the employees. This will help in boosting the level of motivation of the employees so that they can remain productive within the organization. It will also help in providing a positive mental and healthy nature of the employees so that the employees can be able to work in an efficient manner (Aithal and Kumar 2016).

Criticisms for the theory

The theory that was provided by Maslow was criticized by other scholars as well due to the assumptions that were not accounted within the theory. The first assumption was that the theory was proposed based on the individuals who grew in an environment where the needs were not met on the first instance. This would lead to the unlikeliest of functioning of the individuals in a healthy manner. Most of the employees who hold a better position in the organization will be able to satisfy their needs and will be able to satisfy their level of deficiency and growth where as the low level employees will only be able to satisfy their level of deficiencies (Mawere et al. 2016).

The major criticism regarding this theory of motivation is that there is no empirical data that would help in supporting the conclusions that have been drawn by the scholar in the theory. It is also based on the assumption that the employees are mostly alike and are working within the same business environment. Another important criticism was that the factors stated by Maslow were not motivational theories at all but rather it just focused on the level of satisfaction that can be achieved by the employees in the organizational culture (Hur 2017).

Criticisms Against McGregor’s Theory

The assumptions that were made in this theory were also unrealistic with respect to the employees that most of the employees are alike in nature along with the situations that where they are working as well. Apart from this, the best way to meet the needs of the individuals is only through this method. The researcher also failed in taking in to consideration that influence that culture has on the individuals, which may change their basic needs as well. Another well observed criticism was that Maslow created this theory from the perspective of an individual while he was based in a country like United States, which was a highly individualistic nation at that time (Aithal and Kumar 2016). The need of an individualistic nation is more likely to be centred towards them rather than in a collectivist society, which has its focus on the improvement within them. Another criticism that was pointed out in the pyramid provided by Maslow was that the needs of the individual after being met will not disappear entirely. It may again recur due to certain environmental conditions, which may bring the basic needs again in the life of the individuals (Moradi, Shekarchizadeh and Nili 2015).

Hertzberg’s theory

Fredrick Hertzberg developed a theory that was known as the motivator-hygiene or two-factor theory. This theory was developed on the basis of some of the factors that are required in a job so that it can help the employees in removing their level of dissatisfaction within the work place. He further stated that the opposite of satisfaction was no satisfaction and that of dissatisfaction was no dissatisfaction (Hur 2017). 

The factors of job were further divided in to two categories, which are hygiene factors that play an important role for the motivation to exist in the place of work within the organization. The factor of hygiene will not lead to a positive outcome in the longer run among the employees but if it is absent or does not exist within the work place, it may lead to the rise in the level of dissatisfaction among the employees (Mawere et al. 2016). The factor of hygiene has to be reasonable within the process of the job so that it can help in pacifying the employees and decrease the level of dissatisfaction among them. These are some of the factor that is extrinsic in nature, which needs to be maintained within the work place (Aithal and Kumar 2016). The factor of hygiene is also known as the maintenance factor or dissatisfiers within the work place, which is required in the organization so that it can result in eliminating the factor of dissatisfaction among the employees. The factors of hygiene are inclusive of the following things:

1. Pay- The structure of payment or salary has to be appropriate and reasonable for the employees so that they can be motivated within the work place. The salary has to be competitive and equal to the conditions present in the market regarding the people who are working in the same domain so that it can help the organization retaining back the employees and improve its level of productivity (Lee and Hanna 2015).
2. Company and administrative policies- The organizations need to keep in mind that the policies that are framed with respect to the employees are not that rigid, which might affect the productivity levels of the employees. The policies need to be clear and fair so that it can help the employees in working in an efficient manner. This will help in increasing the level of productivity of the firm and the margin of profit will also increase as well. Some of the policies can be providing the employees with flexible hours of shift, timely vacations so that they can rejuvenate themselves and come back within the organization with a renewed vigor (Moradi, Shekarchizadeh and Nili 2015).
3. Fringe benefits- The management of the organization also needs to take in to account the plans of health care so that it can provide a security to the employees within the working environment. The organization also needs to provide benefits to the family members so that it can help the employees in maintaining a better relationship with the organization (Aithal and Kumar 2016).
4. Physical working conditions-The organizations need to maintain a safe and hygienic condition within the work place by ensuring that the equipments are all well-maintained and updated to the latest technology. This will help the organization in gaining a competitive advantage against the rival companies by manufacturing the products at a lesser period of time as well as ensuring the security of the employees. The updated technologies are all based on providing maximum security to the employees so that they do not face any hazardous conditions within the work place (Mawere et al. 2016).
5. Status- The organization should provide a better description of the status that the employees hold within the work place so that they can have a proper understanding regarding the process of job for which they are being hired within the organization. This will help the organization in retaining the employees within the process of job as well (Hur 2017).
6. Interpersonal relations- The organization needs to encourage the relationship between the employees and their subordinates along with the peers so that they can converse with them in an easy manner. This will help the employees in exchanging their ideas with each other so that the quality of work within the organization can be increased. The factor of conflict within the organization among the employees will be reduced to a great extent, as harmonious relationship will help in increasing the productivity level of the organization as well (Fareed and Jan 2016).
7. Job security- The security of job for the employees creates a major impact on the organization, as most of the employees will feel safe within the organization regarding the nature of process that they are working in. This will help the organization in retaining its employees within the organization so that a higher level of productivity within the work place can be achieved (Moradi, Shekarchizadeh and Nili 2015).

Motivation factors	Recognition, career progression
Hygiene factors	Company policies, employee benefits etc

Figure 3. Herzberg’s theory

(Source: Oluwakayode et al. 2017)

Motivational factors according to the theory will also result in increasing the level of satisfaction among the employees, as these factors will play a positive role in motivating the employees towards their job roles. These factors are known as satisfiers and are required by the organization so that the employees can perform the job in a better manner.  Some of the motivational factors are as follows:

1. Recognition- The organization needs to recognize its employees for the accomplishments and the achievements that they have within the organization. This will help the employees in being motivated within the organization (McCracken et al. 2015).
2. Sense of achievement- The employees need to have a sense of achievement among them so that they can be recognized within the process.
3. Promotional opportunities- The organization needs to provide growth opportunities to those employees who have been productive and has been showing a positive attitude towards the work for a continuous period of time so that they can remain motivated within the work place (Moradi, Shekarchizadeh and Nili 2015).

Criticism of the theory

The critique of this theory is that the respondents who had participated in this process have taken in to consideration the good times where as the bad times have been eliminated by them, as the good times has helped them in gaining a personal control over the matters, which can result in crediting themselves (McCracken et al. 2015).

The categorization done by Herzberg was done based on the basic needs of the humans, which was clubbed under the factors of hygiene. This resulted in the fact that the basic needs are not accountable for providing motivation to the employees unless they are fulfilled and it only results in removing the level of dissatisfaction among the employees. Another criticism is that the different factors that are present in the job have not been taken in to account regarding the level of satisfaction or dissatisfaction that can be achieved by the employees. The theory is also based on the standard scale that may result in errors during the time of analyzing the findings (Oluwakayode et al. 2017). Additionally, the findings will be in a generalized pattern and is not based on the actual experience that the employees may have within the work place.

The two factor theory of Herzberg can only be applied to motivate the employees by the managers within the organization. The managers will be able to identify the basic needs of the employees so that it can help in providing the maximum satisfaction to the employees within the work place (McCracken et al. 2015). The removal of the dissatisfaction levels will result in motivating the employees within the job environment so that the level of productivity can be increased as well. This theory cannot be applied to the employees who are at a managerial level, as the factors that will motivate them cannot be identified in a proper manner.

Another important criticism that was identified was that the theory considered money as a factor of hygiene, which can also act as a factor of motivation for a number of employees. Most of the employees work harder within the organization so that they can get a better incentive, which would create an impact on their payment structure (Mawere et al. 2016).    

The motivation theory proposed by McGregor is known as theory X and theory Y. The motivation theory considers two sets of individuals, the X type individuals and Y type individuals.  The following section would throw light on the two types of individuals as per the theory of McGregor:

Theory X:

The X category employees are employees who avoid or are reluctant towards work.  These individuals lack ambition and seek leadership support to a greater extent. These workers desire protection. The theory proposes that these types of workers are poor performers and the management have to deal with them strictly by using methods like coercion, control and reprimand. The management of organisations according to McGregor theory can use two approaches to deal with these individuals namely, hard approach and soft approach (Dwivedula, Bredille and Müller 2015).

The soft approach:

Managers use soft approach to deal with the reluctant and less motivated workers. They are lenient and supportive towards these employees and encourage them to learn the job to arouse motivation in them. Aithal and Kumar (2016), state that this method is not applicable for all employees. They state that employees who are reluctant by nature often use the soft approach to get away with low productivity. This is more applicable in companies where there are employees who are involved in unions.  Zheng et al. (2016) further states that employees who are new can feel motivated by the soft approach but the method is not applicable for deliberately low productive employees. These employees can best be dealt with by application of the hard approach.

The hard approach:

The hard approach consists of using punishments, intimidation and supervision of low performing employees. The aim of this approach is to make these employees work harder by making them feel insecure and threatened. Although Aithal and Kumar (2016) state that this method is applicable for reluctant employees, this method leads to a hostile environment which lead to companies experiencing high employee turnovers (Hou et al. 2016). Thus overuse of the hard approach on employees lead to companies losing their employees which increases their turnover costs.

Theory Y:

The Y theory in contrast to the perception that employees are inefficient, perceives that employees are inefficient. The theory believes that the employees are motivated from within due to the rewards and job satisfaction. The employers in order to deal with these employees use delegation methods. They employees working under the theory Y approach enjoy more liberty in their work (Mawere et al. 2016). The departmental heads use participative leadership style to lead the employees and encourage them to participate in the work. The mangers and the subordinates share the workload and help each to carry on their duties. This leads to high productivity in the organisations which ultimately transforms to great organisational performances (Sahito and Vaisanen 2017).  The employees working under this condition are more productive and participating, thus experience greater degree of job satisfaction.

Behavioural science refers to the systematic investigation and evaluation of the behaviour of human beings by studying the past, observing the present and conducting proper experiments to understand the behaviour. Behavioural research involves the proper study to the several variables that largely influence the formation of one’s habits. It is necessary to scrutinize the behavioural science research such that it has positive impact on an organization (McCracken et al. 2015). With the increase in the globalization, the organizations have developed international influences and have started operating on an international level. This has also encouraged the movement of the human resources from one nation to another in search of better job opportunities. The multinational organizations nowadays comprise of employees belonging to different nations, backgrounds, cultures and religions which results in a complex working environment (Sahito and Vaisanen 2017). This makes it difficult for the management of the multinational organizations to handle complex situations involving employees belonging to different nations and cultures. The people belonging to different nations, cultures and background have different thoughts, ideas and beliefs, which results in a complex working environment.  

Hofstede’s cultural dimension theory addresses the issue of cross- cultural communication. It identifies the impacts of the culture of the society on the values, thoughts and beliefs of the organizational members. The theory helps in understanding the cross- cultural psychology, cross-cultural communication and international management (Aithal and Kumar 2016). The theory divided the national cultures into six dimensions namely power distance index (PDI), Individualism vs collectivism (IDV), Uncertainty avoidance index (UAI), Masculinity vs femininity (MAS), Long-term orientation vs short-term orientation (LTO) and Indulgence vs restraint (IND).

The power distance index indicates “the extent up to which the less powerful members of an organization accept and expect that power is distributed unequally”. The higher degree of PDI indicates that the employees of an organization are satisfied as there is proper organizational hierarchy (Sahito and Vaisanen 2017). For instance, a majority of the Asian countries have a high degree of power distance index whereas countries like Austria and Denmark have very low power distance. On the other hand, IDV is the “extent up to which the organizational members are integrated into groups”. Individualistic culture emphasizes more upon “I” rather than on “WE”, which negatively impacts the relationships between the employees. However, collectivism culture emphasizes more upon “WE” than on “I”, which indicates strong relationships between the organizational members. Collectivism is necessary for the growth and development of an organization especially in case of multinational organizations as the organizations comprise of employees belonging to different cultural backgrounds (Aithal and Kumar 2016). Collectivism ensures loyalty and presence of support among the organizational members.

Uncertainty avoidance index indicates “the extent up to which a society is tolerant towards ambiguity”. The higher the degree of uncertainty avoidance, the more is the strict guidelines, codes of behaviour and laws. However, on the contrary, the lower the degree of uncertainty avoidance, the more is the flexibility and acceptance of the different thoughts, ideas and beliefs of the members of the society (McCracken et al. 2015). Therefore, lower avoidance index is more appropriate for the multinational organizations as they comprise of people belonging to different nationalities and cultural backgrounds. Flexibility in the rules and regulations help the organizational members to easily adjust with the environment and become more productive (Mawere et al. 2016).

Masculinity vs femininity indicates “the preference in the society for achievement, heroism, assertiveness and material rewards for success”. Women usually portray different values in different societies such as they tend to share modest views in feminine societies whereas in masculine societies, the women are more competitive in nature. Masculinity has been observed to be very high in countries like Japan, Hungary, Austria and Switzerland whereas it has been observed to be extremely low in countries like Norway and Sweden (Aithal and Kumar 2016). This also impacts the organizations as the organizations comprise of both men and women and the type of organizational culture and environment determines the effectiveness of the men and women employees.    

Long-term orientation vs short-term orientation indicates the connections of the past with the present and future challenges. Short-term orientation indicates that an organization aims at conserving its values and traditions whereas; long-term orientation indicates that an organization emphasizes more on adaptation and problem solving approach. Long-term orientation is necessary for the development of the organizations as the rapid changes in the business environment demand changes in the organizational culture accordingly (Oluwakayode et al. 2017).  

Indulgence vs restraint indicates the measure of happiness within a society or an organization. Indulgence refers to the society or organization that permits fulfilment of basic human desires in relation with enjoyment and having fun whereas; restraint refers to the society or organization that does not allow or strictly controls the basic enjoyment needs of the human beings by imposing strict social norms. In case of organizations, it becomes necessary to encourage an environment of indulgence such that the employees become motivated in order to become more efficient (Aithal and Kumar 2016).       

Therefore, on critically examining McGregor’s theory of motivation and Hofstede’s cultural dimension theory, it can be stated that and Hofstede’s cultural dimension theory is superior to McGregor’s theory of motivation as the Hofstede’s cultural dimension theory emphasizes more upon the behavioural sciences than on the managerial style. The performance and efficiency of the employees in an organization are more dependent upon behaviour than on the managerial style (Oluwakayode et al. 2017). Additionally, the managerial style must be decided while keeping into consideration the difference in the behaviour of the employees due to the difference in their cultural backgrounds and nationalities. The motivation theory of McGregor does not lay emphasis upon the behaviour of the employees within an organization, which is a result of differences in their cultural backgrounds. The theory emphasizes only upon the style of management and the motivation derived by the employees therein. However, the theory neglected the concept of behavioural science, which largely determines the manner in which an individual can be motivated (Dwivedula, Bredille and Müller 2015). Therefore, it can be concluded that behavioural science research is required to be scrutinized and critically examined such that the organizations can implement appropriate motivational techniques within the organizations for improving the overall organizational efficiency.   

Conclusion:

Thus, it can be concluded that content theories of motivation are extremely applicable in the present organisations. The theory of Maslow sheds light upon the hierarchy of needs of the employees. It is evident that these needs are important to all employees though their order may vary according to the status of the employees. For example, the lower level employees may be motivated by increasing salary while the upper level managers are motivated by career growths. The theory by Herzberg sheds light into the fact that employees are motivated by factors like salary and job conditions. Thus, it can be concluded that both these theories throw light on the fact the employees are influenced by both internal and external factors of motivation. Those factors consist of both internal attributes of employees and characteristics of the organisation. McGregor throws light on two categories of employees namely, X and Y category. The Y category employees are more motivated to perform than X category of employees. The study clearly shows that none of the theories are devoid of criticism and shortcomings. However, these theories are very much applicable even in today’s world and organisations can still use them to motivate their employees. 

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