Study Design and Methodology

The paper taken into consideration, deals with the effects of dietary factors that induce reflux and its association with the occurrence of adenocarcinoma in gastric cardia and in the esophagus (Terry et al., 2000). The researchers considered food items like tomato, mint, chocolate, coffee, onions and several citrus foods which are found to be associated with several symptoms of reflux. The food particles generally cause such symptoms by relaxing the lower esophageal sphincter (LES). The researchers worked on these food items to deduce an inference on the risk of occurrence of adenocarcinoma due to them. The patients who were considered for study were interviewed on the basis of an available updated questionnaire that composed of questions related to dietary factors that they consumed in the past twenty years. The answers were then analyzed and interpreted. The patients of adenocarcinoma of esophagus and gastric cardia were also kept under observation by providing them different samples of the food items that were responsible for the occurrence the mentioned diseases. The association of both the examinations that were conducted on the patients enabled the researchers to give a data of the impact of foods that are responsible for the occurrence of lower esophageal sphincter. The two examinations taken, confirmed the effects of the items (Woodward, 2013).

The researchers did the experiment on a population in Sweden consisting of 185 patients of esophageal adenocarcinoma and 258 patients suffering from gastric cardia adenocarcinoma. The association between the initial exposure of the patient to the food items and the outcomes after consumption of the food was assessed by the researchers. The food items were found to be unassociated with the occurrence of the major symptoms of malignancy of the esophagus.  The methodology of the study included the population study in Sweden’s old population aged under 80 years. The cases were differentiated anatomically and uniformly classified on the basis of histological documents available. Statistical analysis also was done on the basis of spearman correlation coefficient (Glantz, 2012).

The study done by the authors is of major significance as a whole because the research materials available in the present day do not give an ideology of the food items that are having impact on the occurrence of esophageal cancer. The study also gives an insight of the mechanism in which the food items taken under consideration work. The implication that the study has, enables the reader, to fully and clearly asses the findings of the authors.

Evaluation of Findings

The cancer of esophagus is found to be one of the deadliest and least studied type of cancer across the globe. Research on this particular type of melanoma is minimal because the disease advances abruptly from the period of initiation and the nature of such cancer is extremely aggressive. The rate of survival among the people suffering from the menace is really poor (Bhaskaran et al., 2013). The mortality rate among the sufferers of esophageal cancer or melanoma is found to be the sixth highest. Several factors are involved in the occurrence of the disease including various lifestyle disorders like drinking and smoking. Low intake of fresh vegetables and fruits is also found to deteriorate the condition of a patient suffering from it (Brennan & Flanagan, 2012). Dysplasia is the only factor that is used to identify the patients suffering from it. The occurrence of the disease attracted the researchers to conduct a study on the case. The conductance of the study was of major importance as there were minimal references available and studies done on the risk factors related to the disease.

The process followed by the authors to study the effects of the food items on the sufferers of gastric cardia and esophageal cancer included the interviews of the patients conducted by professional interviewers. The interviewers were from Statistics Sweden. The study had the inculcation of a questionnaire of food frequency which consisted of 63 different types of food and beverages that are found to be risk factors for esophageal sphincter. The inculcation of such questionnaires reduces the time required for evaluation and decreases redundancy in the study (Fletcher, Fletcher & Fletcher, 2012). The dietary habits of the people over the last 20 years were examined, this process helps in analyzing properties of the health and others factors can also be found that can be associated with the disease occurrence. The size of the meal that the patients had, were also considered as it gives an idea about the dietary pattern of the person. The study even had the presence of a population of people who were not suffering from either of the ailments. The approach was done to examine the dietary effects of the food items along with the effects of lifestyle associated discrepancies.  The people without the ailments were considered as control to get an insight of the dietary effects as whole.

The evaluation resulted in the following findings. Among the people suffering from adenocarcinoma of the esophagus, the percentage of people having the severe symptoms was seen to be 87.6 percent. Among the patients of adenocarcinoma of gastric cardia, the percentage was seen to be 84.9. Among the control sample, it was seen that the symptoms were present in 16.7 percent of the people on whom the study was conducted. The inference from the results obtained were deduced by the researchers as the people who were having the habit of smoking, even some of the people considered in the control, had the symptoms of reflux.

Exposure to LES Relaxing Foods and its Association with Gastric Cardia and Esophageal Adenocarcinoma

The median levels of the dietary factors were analyzed among the sufferers and non-sufferers of reflux. The food items previously discussed were taken into consideration and the portion of the meal was analyzed among the people. The consumption of chocolate and citrus fruits had a negative spearman correlation coefficient, that is, the consumption of these food products had no effect or risk on the patients of adenocarcinoma of the esophagus or with that of adenocarcinoma of the gastric cardia. On the other hand, the spearman correlation coefficient for the consumption of fat, mint, tomatoes were on the negative side but the values were negligible, hence they are also not considered to be having causation (Willett, 2012). The last size of meal consumed was also considered as an important characteristic and it was seen that there was no relation of the meal size with the occurrence of the diseases the paper was emphasizing on.

Exposure to the LES relaxing foods and its association with gastric cardia and esophageal adenocarcinoma: exposure and outcome relations:

The people who were taken as cases for the study were exposed to the LES relaxing food items, the exposure was done in several different levels of the food products. The assessment was done by implementation of odds ratio (OR), this type of statistical estimation helps to give a comparison between two different related factors by deducing the absence or presence the properties (Clayton & Hills, 2013). After examination of the outcome, it was inferred by the researchers that none of the foods that are associated with LES relaxation were responsible for the occurrence of either adenocarcinoma of the esophagus or gastric cardia. On the other hand, some of the items which were used for examination purpose were found to reduce the risk of both the types of carcinoma. The items that were found to be essential in the diet of the patients of both esophageal adenocarcinoma and gastric cardia are leeks, onion and garlic. Although the study was basically done to analyze the risk factors of these items, they were found to behaving positive impact on the patients and hence can be taken as an additive finding of the research work.

The spearman correlation study was done in a partially hypothetical manner as there were no evidences of the food consumption pattern of the cases under consideration. The OR study was based on practically available evidences in front of the researchers, hence it gives a better conception about the risk factors associated with the food items. Although, the spearman correlation results were done on the basis of hypothetical data, it gave an insight of the patterns in which the people who were suffering from the two cancers. Incorporation of both the types of study was important as cancer in general is found to occur as a consequence of unhealthy lifestyle for a long period of time or due to several genetic factors (Von Elm et al., 2014). The influence of food items in a long term was essential to analyze as tests conducted for a short period of time does not give the desired results for the patients of the types of cancers under consideration.

Causal Association between the Exposure to Dietary Factors and the Inferred Outcomes

Causal association between the exposure to the dietary factors and the inferred outcomes:

The causal association between the food products taken into consideration and the disease of gastric cardia melanoma and esophageal adenocarcinoma is negligible, the effect of food products like chocolate and citrus fruits as discussed in the previous section was nil on the occurrence of both the cancer types. The spearman correlation in case of the other food products that is onion, garlic, fat and tomato was positive but the values were negligible, hence the causal relationship can be considered to be negative with the dilatory factors that were under evaluation of the researchers.  The results from both the studies that is, the hypothetical as well as the practical analysis, the causation was determined to be the same, the food products were determined to have the same implications in the results. The causal association can therefore be clearly illustrated by the findings of the researchers (VanderWeele, Valeri & Ogburn, 2012). Therefore, it can be said that the dietary factors have a non-causal association with occurrence of the two types of cancers.

Resultants of the study, the possibility of biases (confounding included) and relevancy to other populations:

The interpreted results by the researchers may have several biases associated with it. The techniques that the study involved, has a possibility of occurrence of systematic errors. The food products were not administered singularly to the population under study. The study was done in a short interval of time and the consumption pattern in the population was studied in a combination basis, that is, a number of food products known to elevate the risk of LES were administered together to the population (VanderWeele, Mumford & Schisterman, 2012). There may be an association of two or more food items in the causation of the two discussed cancers when consumed together (Debray et al., 2015). The proportion of food that was served to the population may even be a factor due to which the results were found to have non-causal association with gastric cardia and adenocarcinoma of the esophagus, that is biases due to confound is a factor that may be responsible for the obtained results. The interview session that was organized by the researchers was up to some extent hypothetical as the answers and the dietary habits given by the population under inspection may or may not be true, there were no documentary evidences behind the answers obtained from them, hence there is a high possibility of information bias in the case of the study (Westreich, 2012).

Resultants of the Study, the Possibility of Biases (Confounding Included) and Relevancy to Other Populations

The chance of observer bias is minimal, rather negligible as the information obtained from the population was audio recorded and documented immediately by professionals. The hypothetical study also has a possibility of recall bias because the dietary factors that the people of the population under consideration had for the past twenty years is a difficult thing to remember and give information about it to the researchers, so, the information given by the population may not be correct in totality (Szklo & Nieto, 2014). The results that were inferred by the authors, cannot be considered a universally true result because the study considered only a small population of people in Sweden. Several other factors may influence and change the outcomes of the exposure. The result can therefore have selection bias, because of the restriction in the consideration of population (Elwood, 2017).

The findings of the researchers and the effect of chance variation on the results:

There is always a possibility of chance variation in any case of epidemiology study to some degrees. There are several factor that are not involved in the study but influences the outcome to some extent. The reactions that the food products caused in the considered population may have influence of the various physical factors like temperature, behavioral aspects of the person under inspection.  The abstract setup of the study was accurate for the epidemiology study but the hypotheticals answers and the administration of food products only singularly for short analysis raised the chances of the effect of chance variation on the obtained results (Kramer, 2012).

Plausibility of causal association between the exposure to dietary factors and the resultant:

As discussed in the previous section that the dietary factors that were involved in the research process had minimum causal association with adenocarcinoma of the esophagus and gastric cardia. The association between the exposure and resultant or outcome of the study can be partially possible as they were obtained on a minimal dosages of the food products (Steyerberg, & Harrell, 2016).

The results of the study can be validated up to some extent but not in totality as there are associated biasness with the obtained results a discussed in the previous sections. The population was considerably small to deduce an inference about the dietary factors for a larger population base. The inference can be validated in the regions which have similar ecological conditions and weather patterns as the variation related to physical attributes of the place remains the same (Khorsan, & Crawford, 2014). The research was done by taking into account minimum amounts of the dietary factors, larger portions may have had influence on the physical condition of the patients of the two types of cancers.

Therefore, it can be concluded from the above discussion that the article on the effects of the dietary factors involved in LES on esophageal cancer and gastric cardia was well structured. The population that was taken under consideration although was small, the outline of the study was appreciable. The study would have been universally considered if the researchers would have taken a larger population for inspection. The biasness of the study is considerably high as the proportion study of the dietary factors was done only in minimum quantities (Richiardi, Bellocco, & Zugna, 2013). The work also had a possibility of confounding because the test was done on singular product basis. Combinations may have had causal association with the cancer types that were considered. Information bias is one of the crucial fault of the study, the details that were given by the population of the diets they had for the past twenty years may have untrue answers as there are no documentary evidences of the same (Frisell et al., 2012). It is also the reason for occurrence of recall bias. The study can be validated for the regions having similar ecological conditions. Overall, the study gave an insight about the consequences that the dietary factors can have of the two types of cancer patients, the work would have been considered totally satisfactory if it had negligible biases associated with it.

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